Comparison table for computers of different generations. Lecture: generations of computers, main characteristics of computers of different generations

In accordance with the generally accepted methodology for assessing development computer technology The first generation were considered to be tube computers, the second were transistor computers, the third were computers based on integrated circuits, and the fourth - using microprocessors.

First generation of computers (1948–1958) was created on the basis of vacuum electric lamps, the machine was controlled from a remote control and punched cards using machine codes. These computers were housed in several large metal cabinets that occupied entire rooms.

The elemental base of machines of this generation were vacuum tubes - diodes and triodes. The machines were intended to solve relatively simple scientific and technical problems. This generation of computers includes: MESM, BESM-1, M-1, M-2, M-Z, “Strela”, Minsk-1, Ural-1, Ural-2, Ural-3, M-20, “ Setun", BESM-2, "Hrazdan" (Fig. 2.1).

The first generation computers were of considerable size, consumed a lot of power, had low reliability and weak software. Their speed did not exceed 2–3 thousand operations per second, the RAM capacity was 2 kb or 2048 machine words (1 kb = 1024) with a length of 48 binary characters.

Second generation of computers (1959–1967) appeared in the 60s. XX century. Computer elements were made on the basis of semiconductor transistors (Fig. 2.2, 2.3). These machines processed information under the control of programs in Assembly language. Data and programs were entered from punched cards and punched tapes.

The elemental base of machines of this generation were semiconductor devices. The machines were intended to solve various labor-intensive scientific and technical problems, as well as to control technological processes in production. The appearance of semiconductor elements in electronic circuits significantly increased the capacity of RAM, the reliability and speed of computers. Dimensions, weight and power consumption have decreased. With the advent of second-generation machines, the scope of use of electronic computer technology has expanded significantly, mainly due to the development of software.

Third generation of computers (1968–1973). The elemental base of a computer is small integrated circuits (MICs), containing hundreds or thousands of transistors on one plate. The operation of these machines was controlled from alphanumeric terminals. Languages ​​used for control high level and Assembler. Data and programs were entered both from the terminal and from punched cards and punched tapes. The machines were intended for widespread use in various areas science and technology (calculations, production management, moving objects, etc.). Thanks to integrated circuits, it was possible to significantly improve the technical and operational characteristics of computers and sharply reduce hardware prices. For example, third-generation machines, compared to second-generation machines, have a larger amount of RAM, increased performance, increased reliability, and reduced power consumption, footprint and weight.

Fourth generation of computers (1974–1982). The elemental base of a computer is large integrated circuits (LSI). The most prominent representatives of the fourth generation of computers are personal computers (PCs). Communication with the user was carried out through a color graphic display using high-level languages.

The machines were intended to dramatically increase labor productivity in science, production, management, healthcare, service and everyday life. A high degree of integration contributed to an increase in the layout density of electronic equipment and an increase in its reliability, which led to an increase in the speed of the computer and a decrease in its cost. All this has a significant impact on logical structure(architecture) of the computer and its software. The connection between the structure of the machine and its software becomes closer, especially the operating system (OS) (or monitor) - a set of programs that organize the continuous operation of the machine without human intervention

Fifth generation of computers (1990–present) created on the basis of very large integrated circuits (VLSI), which are characterized by colossal placement density logic elements on a crystal.

6. Organization computer systems

Processors

In Fig. Figure 2.1 shows the structure of a conventional computer with a bus organization. The central processing unit is the brain of the computer. Its job is to execute programs located in main memory. It recalls commands from memory, determines their type, and then executes them one by one. The components are connected by a bus, which is a set of wires connected in parallel, through which addresses, data and control signals are transmitted. Buses can be external (connecting the processor with memory and I/O devices) and internal.

Rice. 2.1. Diagram of a computer with one central processor and two input/output devices

The processor consists of several parts. The control unit is responsible for recalling commands from memory and determining their type. An arithmetic logic unit performs arithmetic operations (such as addition) and logical operations (such as logical AND).

Inside central processor there is storage memory intermediate results and some control commands. This memory consists of several registers, each of which performs a specific function. Typically the size of all registers is the same. Each register contains one number, which is limited by the size of the register. Registers are read and written very quickly because they are located inside the CPU.

The most important register is the program counter, which indicates which instruction to execute next. The name "program counter" is misleading because it doesn't count anything, but the term is used everywhere1. There is also a command register, which contains the command being executed in this moment team. Most computers have other registers, some of which are multifunctional, while others perform only specific functions.

7. Software. Main memory.

The entire set of programs stored on all devices of the computer’s long-term memory constitutes it. software(BY).

System software;
- application software;
- instrumental software.

The textbook consists of two sections: theoretical and practical. The theoretical part of the textbook outlines the foundations of modern computer science as a complex scientific and technical discipline, including the study of the structure and general properties of information and information processes, general principles construction computing devices, issues of organization and functioning of information and computer networks are considered, computer security, the key concepts of algorithmization and programming, databases and DBMS are presented. To control the acquired theoretical knowledge, self-testing questions and tests are offered. The practical part covers algorithms for basic actions when working with text Microsoft processor Word, spreadsheet editor Microsoft Excel, a program for creating Microsoft Power Point presentations, archiving programs and anti-virus programs. To consolidate the completed practical course, at the end of each section it is proposed to complete independent work.

Book:

In accordance with the element base and level of development software There are four real generations of computers, a brief description of which is given in Table 1.

The first generation computers had a low speed of several tens of thousands of ops/sec. Ferrite cores were used as internal memory.

The main disadvantage of these computers is the mismatch between the performance of the internal memory and the ALU and control unit due to different element bases. The overall performance was determined by the slower component - the internal memory - and reduced the overall effect. Already in the first generation computers, attempts were made to eliminate this drawback by asynchronizing the operation of devices and introducing output buffering when transmitted information“reset” to the buffer, freeing the device for further work (autonomy principle). Thus, its own memory was used to operate the I/O devices.

A significant functional limitation of the first generation computer was its focus on performing arithmetic operations. When trying to adapt them to analysis tasks, they turned out to be ineffective.

There were no programming languages ​​as such yet, and programmers used machine instructions or assemblers to code their algorithms. This complicated and delayed the programming process. By the end of the 50s, programming tools were undergoing fundamental changes: a transition was made to automation of programming using universal languages ​​and libraries of standard programs. The use of universal languages ​​led to the emergence of translators.

The programs were executed task by task, i.e. the operator had to monitor the progress of solving the problem and, when the end was reached, initiate the execution of the next task.

The beginning of the modern era of computer use in our country dates back to 1950, when at the Institute of Electrical Engineering of the Academy of Sciences of the Ukrainian SSR under the leadership of S.A. Lebedev created the first domestic computer called MESM - Small Electronic Calculating Machine. During the first stage of development of computer technology in our country, a number of computers were created: BESM, Strela, Ural, M-2.

The second generation of computers is the transition to a transistor element base, the emergence of the first mini-computers.

Receives further development the principle of autonomy - it is already implemented at the level individual devices, which is expressed in their modular structure. I/O devices are equipped with their own control units (called controllers), which made it possible to free the central control unit from managing I/O operations.

Improvement and reduction in the cost of computers led to a decrease in the specific cost of computer time and computing resources in the total cost of an automated solution to a data processing problem, while at the same time the costs of program development (i.e. programming) almost did not decrease, and in some cases tended to increase . Thus, there was a tendency towards efficient programming, which began to be implemented in the second generation of computers and is being developed to the present day.

The development begins on the basis of libraries of standard programs of integrated systems that have the property of portability, i.e. functioning on a computer different brands. The most frequently used software tools are allocated in the software for solving problems of a certain class.

The technology for executing programs on a computer is being improved: special software tools are being created - system software.

The purpose of creating system software is to speed up and simplify the processor's transition from one task to another. The first batch processing systems appeared, which simply automated the launch of one program after another and thereby increased the processor load factor. Batch processing systems were the prototype of modern operating systems; they became the first system programs designed to manage the computing process. During the implementation of batch processing systems, a formalized task control language was developed, with the help of which the programmer informed the system and the operator what work he wanted to perform on the computer. A collection of several tasks, usually in the form of a deck of punched cards, is called a task package. This element is still alive: the so-called MS DOS batch (or command) files are nothing more than packages of tasks (the extension in their name bat is an abbreviation for the English word batch, which means package).

Second generation domestic computers include “Promin”, “Minsk”, “Hrazdan”, “Mir”.

In the 70s, third-generation computers emerged and developed. In our country these are ES Computers, ASVT, SM Computers. This stage– transition to an integrated element base and creation of multi-machine systems, since significant increase It was no longer possible to achieve speed on the basis of a single computer. Therefore, computers of this generation were created on the basis of the principle of unification, which made it possible to integrate arbitrary computing systems in various fields of activity.

The expansion of the functionality of computers has increased the scope of their application, which has caused an increase in the volume of processed information and posed the task of storing data in special databases and maintaining them. This is how the first database management systems - DBMS - appeared.

The forms of computer use have changed: the introduction of remote terminals (displays) has made it possible to widely and effectively introduce time-sharing mode and thereby bring the computer closer to the user and expand the range of tasks to be solved.

Ensuring a time-sharing regime allowed the new kind operating systems that support multiprogramming. Multiprogramming is a way of organizing a computing process in which several programs are alternately executed on one processor. While one program is performing an I/O operation, the processor is not idle, as was the case when executing programs sequentially (single-program mode), but is executing another program (multi-program mode). In this case, each program is loaded into its own section of internal memory, called a partition. Multiprogramming aims to create something for everyone individual user illusions of sole use of a computer, therefore such operating systems were interactive in nature, when the user solved his problems in the process of dialogue with the computer.

First electronic projects computers(Computers) appeared in the late 30s - early 40s of the XX century. Let us note that the technical prerequisites for this had already been created, electronics and computing and analytical computer technology were developing. In 1904, the first tube diode was invented, and in 1906, the first triode (ϲᴏᴏᴛʙᴇᴛϲᴛʙtwo- and three-electrode vacuum tube); in 1918 - electronic relay (tube trigger) Trigger circuits began to be widely used in electronics for switching and relay switching.

Another technical prerequisite for the creation of a computer was the development of electromechanical computing and analytical equipment. Thanks to the accumulated experience in the development of computer technology in the mid-30s, it became possible creation software-controlled computers, and the construction of computers on electronic circuits opened up broad prospects associated with increased reliability and speed.

Computers appeared when there was an urgent need to carry out labor-intensive and accurate calculations. The level of progress in such areas of science and technology, such as nuclear energy and aerospace research, largely depended on the ability to perform complex calculations that could not be carried out within the framework of electromechanical calculating machines. A transition to computers operating with greater productivity was required.

In the history of computer development, there are five stages that span five generations of computers.

Machine period first generation begins with the transition to serial production Computers in the early 50s of the XX century. They implemented the basic principles proposed by John von Neumann.

1. The principle of a stored program. The machine has a memory in which the program, data and results of intermediate calculations are stored. The program is entered into the machine, just like data, in the form of binary codes (and not by the plug-in method, i.e. by switching wires in a certain sequence)

2. Address principle. The command does not indicate the numbers themselves, on which arithmetic operations must be performed, but the addresses of the memory cells where these numbers are located.

3. Automatism. Once the program and data are entered, the machine operates automatically, carrying out the program's instructions without human intervention. It is worth saying that for this purpose the machine remembers the address of the command being executed, and each command contains an indication of the address of the next command. An instruction can be one of three types: implicit (go to the command next at the address after the one being executed), unconditional (go to the command at a given address), conditional (check a given condition and, depending on its fulfillment, go to a command at a particular address )

4. Forwarding. Memory addresses specified in the command can be calculated and converted as numbers.

The structure of the computer, in which the von Neumann principles are implemented, was subsequently called the “von Neumann” (or classical) structure. All further development of the computer followed two paths: improving the von Neumann structure and searching for new structures.

Note that the technical basis of the elemental base of the processors of the first computers were electronic vacuum tubes (EVL), and cathode ray tubes (CRT) were used as random access memory devices. These were bulky machines, taking up a lot of space and consuming a lot of electricity. It is worth noting that they performed several thousand operations per second and had a memory of several thousand machine words. These machines assumed an exclusive mode of use, i.e. The user had all the resources of the machine and its control at his disposal. The programmer narrated the program in machine code and debugged it at the console of the machine, which was completely at his disposal during debugging. At ϶ᴛᴏm 90% of the time the machine was idle waiting for commands, i.e. the use of machine resources was ineffective due to the lack of a developed operating system. First generation computers were used mainly for scientific calculations. The first domestic computer was MESM (small electronic calculating machine), developed in 1947 - 1951. under the leadership of academician S.A. Lebedeva. In 1952, BESM (large electronic calculating machine), created under the leadership of S.A., was put into operation. Lebedeva. In 1955, the production of the small computer “Ural-1” began (project manager B.I. Rameev). An example of a foreign serial computer model would be the IBM-701 (USA)

Second generation The computer (late 50s - mid 60s) is called transistor-ferrite, since transistors (solid diodes and triodes) replaced vacuum tubes in processors, and ferrite (magnetizable) cores replaced cathode ray tubes in random access memory devices.

The use of transistors has significantly influenced the characteristics and structure of machines. Transistor circuits made it possible to increase the installation density of electronic equipment by an order of magnitude and significantly (by several orders of magnitude) reduce energy consumption. The service life of transistors was two to three orders of magnitude longer than the service life vacuum tubes. The speed of computers increased to hundreds of thousands of operations per second, and memory - to tens of thousands of machine words.

The creation of long-term memory on magnetic disks and tapes, as well as the ability to connect a variable composition of external devices to a computer, significantly expanded the functionality of computers.

In the organization of the computing process, a major achievement was the combination in time of calculations and input-output of information, the transition from monopoly regime use of machine resources for batch processing. Computer tasks (on punched cards, magnetic tapes or disks) were collected into a package, which was processed without interruption between tasks. This allowed for more economical use of machine resources.

In programming, programming methods in symbolic notation were developed, the first algorithmic languages ​​and translators from these languages ​​were created, and libraries of standard programs were created.

The most widely used domestic computers, such as BESM-4, M-220, Minsk-32. A typical representative of a second-generation foreign computer will be the IBM-7090.

Third generation The computer (late 60s - early 70s) is characterized by the appearance of integrated semiconductor circuits (instead of individual transistors) as the elemental base of the processor, which led to a further increase in speed to a million operations per second and memory to hundreds of thousands of words.

Third-generation computers are also characterized by major shifts in computer architecture, their software, and the organization of human-machine interaction. This is, first of all, the presence of a developed configuration of external devices (alphanumeric terminals, plotters, etc.) using standard interface tools, a developed operating system that ensures operation in multi-program mode (several programs simultaneously located in RAM share processor resources) Method use of computer resources - time sharing mode in conjunction with batch processing. High speed allows the user service time to be divided into quantums, processing each task during the quantum, returning to the user in such a short time that behind the display he has the illusion that he is the only one using the machine’s resources.

The creation of a family of integrated circuit computers with a wide range of computing power and compatible from bottom to top at the level of machine languages, external devices, design modules and element systems. Software compatibility from bottom to top of machines of the same family implies that any program executed on a younger machine should be executed on an older one without any modifications.

Families of minicomputers have also become widespread. The essence of their design solution was such a minimization of the central processor equipment, which made it possible, at the level of technology of that time, to create universal computers capable of carrying out control in real time, at which the rate of issuing control actions on the control object is coordinated with the speed of processes in this object.

In our country, during the period of the third generation of machines, a Unified Computer System (US COMPUTER) was created, basically copying the IBM-360 and IBM-370, as well as a series of mini-computers SM COMPUTER, oriented towards foreign models. Contribution of Russian science to world development electronic computer technology in this period was associated with the industrial introduction of the M-10 multiprocessor computer.

During the period of third-generation machines, a major shift occurred in the field of application of computers. If earlier computers were used mainly for scientific and technical calculations, then in the 60s and 70s the first place began to be occupied by the processing of symbolic information, mainly economic.

The machines of the ES computer series have a universal purpose, and the main area of ​​application of the SM computer will be the automation of technological processes, scientific experiments and testing facilities, and design work.

Transition to machines fourth generation- Computers on large-scale integrated circuits (LSI) - took place in the second half of the 70s and ended approximately by 1980. Note that now hundreds of thousands of electronic elements. The speed and memory capacity increased tens of thousands of times compared to the first generation machines and amounted to approximately 10 9 op/s and 10 7 words ϲᴏᴏᴛʙᴇᴛϲᴛʙ.

The characteristic features of fourth generation machines will be the close connection between hardware and software implementations in the structure of the machine, a departure from the principle of minimizing hardware and entrusting it with program functions, which became possible due to the relatively low cost of the LSI.

The development of computer architecture during the period of fourth generation machines led to the emergence of structures in which the computing process can proceed through several branches in parallel, which leads to an increase in the performance of computers. The idea of ​​parallelism was technically implemented in multiprocessor systems, consisting of two or more interconnected processors sharing memory and controlled by a common operating system.

As a result of the increased speed of the computer, it became possible to expand RAM due to the introduction of virtual memory based on page exchange of information between external and main memory.

The greatest achievement associated with the use of LSI was the creation of microprocessors, and then microcomputers based on them. If previous generations of computers required special premises, a ventilation system, and special equipment for power supply for its location, then the requirements for the operation of microcomputers are no different from the operating conditions of household electrical appliances. At the same time, they have fairly high productivity, are economical to operate and are cheap. Microcomputers can be used in measuring complexes, numerical control systems, in control systems for various purposes.

Further development of microcomputers led to the creation personal computers(PC), the widespread use of which began in 1975, when IBM released its first personal computer, the IBM PC. Now such computers (compatible with IBM PC) make up about 90% of all PCs produced in the world. The PC implements the principle open architecture, which means that as the characteristics of the main PC units improve, outdated parts can be easily replaced, and the upgraded unit will be compatible with previously used equipment. Other advantages of the PC will be developed dialogue tools, high reliability, ease of use, availability of software covering almost all areas of human activity.

During the period of fourth-generation machines, supercomputers also began to be mass-produced. The increase in the degree of integration of LSI has become technological basis computer performance. Several production models have achieved performance in excess of 1 billion operations per second. Among the most significant developments of fourth-generation machines is the Krey-3 computer, designed on the basis of a fundamentally new technology - replacing the silicon crystal with gallium arsenide, with a productivity of up to 16 billion operations per second. An example of a domestic supercomputer will be the Elbrus multiprocessor computing complex with a speed of up to 1.2-10 8 op/s.

Since the late 80s, the time has come in the history of the development of computer technology fifth generation COMPUTER. Note that the technological, design, structural and architectural ideas of fifth-generation machines are fundamentally different from machines of previous generations. First of all, their structure and architecture differ from the von Neumann (classical) one. The high speed of arithmetic calculations is complemented by high speeds of logical inference. Even speed is supposed to be expressed in inference units. The machine consists of several blocks. The communication block provides an interface between the user and the computer in natural language, and the discipline of programming as a science for the user will cease to be relevant in the future. Don't forget that important place in the structure of the computer it occupies a block representing the knowledge base in which the knowledge accumulated by humanity in various subject areas, which are constantly expanding and replenished. The next block, called the solver, organizes the preparation of a program for solving the problem based on knowledge obtained from the knowledge base and initial data obtained from the communication block. The core of the computing system is a high-performance computer. The material was published on http://site

In connection with the emergence of a new basic computer structure, models and tools developed in the field of artificial intelligence can be widely used in fifth-generation machines.

Table - Main characteristics of computers of various generations

Over the course of 50 years, several generations of computers have appeared, replacing each other. The rapid development of VT throughout the world is determined only by advanced element base and architectural solutions.
Since a computer is a system consisting of hardware and software, it is natural to understand a generation as computer models characterized by the same technological and software solutions ( element base, logical architecture, software). Meanwhile, in a number of cases it turns out to be very difficult to classify VT by generation, because the line between them becomes more and more blurred from generation to generation.
First generation.
Elemental base - electronic lamps and relays; RAM was performed on flip-flops, later on ferrite cores. Reliability is low, a cooling system was required; Computers had significant dimensions. Performance - 5 - 30 thousand arithmetic op/s; Programming - in computer codes ( machine code), later autocodes and assemblers appeared. Programming was carried out by a narrow circle of mathematicians, physicists, and electronics engineers. First generation computers were used mainly for scientific and technical calculations.

Second generation.
Semiconductor element base. Reliability and performance are significantly increased, dimensions and power consumption are reduced. Development of input/output facilities, external memory. A number of progressive architectural solutions and further development of programming technology - time sharing mode and multiprogramming mode (combining the work of the central processor for data processing and input/output channels, as well as parallelization of operations for fetching commands and data from memory)
Within the second generation, the differentiation of computers into small, medium and large began to clearly appear. The scope of application of computers to solve problems - planning, economic, management - has expanded significantly production processes and etc.
Automated control systems (ACS) for enterprises, entire industries and technological processes (ACS) are being created. The end of the 50s is characterized by the emergence of a number of problem-oriented high-level programming languages ​​(HLPs): FORTRAN, ALGOL-60, etc. Software development began in the creation of libraries of standard programs in various languages programming and various purposes, monitors and dispatchers for controlling computer operating modes, planning its resources, which laid the foundation for the concepts of next-generation operating systems.

Third generation.
Element base on integrated circuits (IC). A series of computer models appear that are software compatible from the bottom up and have increasing capabilities from model to model. The logical architecture of computers and their periphery equipment, which significantly expanded the functionality and computing capabilities. Operating systems (OS) become part of a computer. Many tasks of managing memory, input/output devices and other resources began to be taken over by the OS or directly by the computer hardware. Software is becoming powerful: database management systems (DBMS), design automation systems (CAD) for various purposes are appearing, automated control systems and process control systems are being improved. Much attention is paid to the creation of application program packages (APP) for various purposes.
Languages ​​and programming systems are developing. Examples: - series of IBM/360 models, USA, serial production - since 1964; -EU Computers, USSR and CMEA countries since 1972.
Fourth generation.
The element base is becoming large-scale (LSI) and ultra-large-scale (VLSI) integrated circuits. Computers were already designed at efficient use software (for example, UNIX-like computers, the best way immersed in a UNIX software environment; Prolog machines focused on artificial intelligence tasks); modern nuclear power plants. Telecommunications information processing is rapidly developing by improving the quality of communication channels using satellite communications. National and transnational information and computer networks are being created, which make it possible to talk about the beginning of the computerization of human society as a whole.
Further intellectualization of computer technology is determined by the creation of more developed human-computer interfaces, knowledge bases, expert systems, systems parallel programming and etc.
The elemental base made it possible to achieve great success in miniaturization, increasing the reliability and performance of computers. Micro- and mini-computers have appeared, surpassing the average and mainframe computers previous generation at a significantly lower cost. The production technology of VLSI-based processors accelerated the pace of computer production and made it possible to introduce computers to the broad masses of society. Since the advent universal processor on one chip (Intel-4004 microprocessor, 1971) the era of the PC began.
The first PC can be considered the Altair-8800, created on the basis of the Intel-8080, in 1974. E.Roberts. P. Allen and W. Gates created a translator from the popular Basic language, significantly increasing the intelligence of the first PC (later they founded the famous Microsoft company Inc). The face of the 4th generation is largely determined by the creation of supercomputers characterized by high performance (average speed 50 - 130 megaflops. 1 megaflops = 1 million operations per second with floating point) and non-traditional architecture (the principle of parallelization based on pipelined processing of commands) . Supercomputers are used in solving problems of mathematical physics, cosmology and astronomy, modeling complex systems etc. Since powerful computers play and will continue to play an important switching role in networks, network issues are often discussed together with questions on super-computers. Among the domestic developments of super-computers, one can name the Elbrus series machines, the PS-2000 and PS-3000 computing systems , containing up to 64 processors controlled by a common command stream, performance on a number of tasks was achieved on the order of 200 megaflops. At the same time, taking into account the complexity of the development and implementation of modern supercomputer projects, which require intensive fundamental research in the field of computer science, electronic technologies, high production standards, serious financial costs, it seems very unlikely that in the foreseeable future the creation of domestic super-computers whose main characteristics are not inferior to the best foreign models.
It should be noted that with the transition to IP technology for computer production, the defining emphasis of generations is increasingly shifting from the element base to other indicators: logical architecture, software, user interface, application areas, etc.
Fifth generation.
It originates in the depths of the fourth generation and is largely determined by the results of the work of the Japanese Committee for Scientific Research in the Field of Computers, published in 1981. According to this project, computers and computing systems of the fifth generation, in addition to high performance and reliability at a lower cost, are fully provided by VLSI, etc. the latest technologies, must satisfy the following qualitatively new functional requirements:

· ensure ease of use of computers by implementing voice input/output systems; interactive information processing using natural languages; learning capabilities, associative constructions and logical conclusions;

· simplify the process of creating software by automating the synthesis of programs according to the specifications of the original requirements in natural languages

· improve the basic characteristics and performance qualities of computers to meet various social objectives, improve the cost-benefit ratio, speed, lightness, and compactness of computers; ensure their diversity, high adaptability to applications and reliability in operation.

Considering the complexity of the implementation of the tasks assigned to the fifth generation, it is quite possible to divide it into more visible and better felt stages, the first of which was largely implemented within the framework of the present fourth generation.

Electronic computer types in our country are divided into several generations. The defining features when assigning devices to a certain generation are their elements and varieties of such important characteristics, such as performance, memory capacity, methods of managing and processing information. The division of computers is conditional - there are a considerable number of models that, according to some characteristics, belong to one type, and according to others - to another type of generation. As a result, these types of computers may belong to different stages of the development of electronic computing technology.

First generation of computers

The development of computers is divided into several periods. The generation of devices of each period differs from each other in their element bases and mathematical type support.

1st generation of computers (1945-1954) - electronic computers on lamps electronic type(similar ones were in the first TV models). This time can be called the era of the formation of such technology.

Most of the machines of the first type of generation were called experimental types of devices, which were created with the aim of testing one or another of the theories. The size and weight of computer units, which often required separate buildings, have long become the stuff of legend. Entering numbers into the first machines was done using punched cards, and program controls sequences of functions were carried out, for example, in ENIAC, as in machines of the calculating and analytical type, using plugs and types of typesetting fields. Despite the fact that such a programming method required a lot of time in order to prepare the machine, for connections on the typesetting fields (patchboard) of blocks, it provided all the opportunities for implementing the counting “abilities” of ENIAC, and with great benefit had differences from the software method punched tape, which is typical for relay-type devices.

How did these units work?

The employees who were assigned to this machine were constantly near it and monitored the performance of the vacuum tubes. But as soon as at least one lamp burned out, ENIAC immediately rose, and troubles ensued: everyone was in a hurry to search for the burnt out lamp. The main reason(maybe not exact) very frequent replacement of lamps was as follows: the heat and glow of the lamps attracted moths, they flew inside the car and contributed to the occurrence short circuit. Thus, the 1st generation of computers was extremely vulnerable to external conditions.

If the above is true, then the term “bugs”, which refers to errors in software and hardware equipment computer equipment, is already gaining a new value. Once all the tubes were in working order, the engineering staff could customize the ENIAC for any task by manually changing the connections of the 6,000 wires. All wires had to be switched again if a different type of task was required.

The very first production cars

The first mass-produced computer of the first generation was the UNIVAC computer (Universal automatic computer). Developers of this computer were: John Mauchly and J. Prosper Eckert. It was the first type of electronic digital computer general purpose. UNIVAC, whose development work began in 1946 and ended in 1951, had an addition time of 120 μs, a multiplication time of 1800 μs, and a division time of 3600 μs.

These machines occupied a lot of space, used a lot of electricity and consisted of a huge number of electronic lamps. For example, the Strela machine had 6,400 such lamps and 60 thousand pieces of semiconductor type diodes. The performance of this generation of computers did not exceed 2-3 thousand operations per second, the volume of RAM was no more than 2 KB. Only the M-2 machine (1958) had 4 KB of RAM, and its speed was 20 thousand operations per second.

Second generation computers - significant differences

In 1948, theoretical physicists John Bardeen and William Shockley, together with leading experimentalist at Bell Telephone Laboratories Walter Brattain, created the first working transistor. It was a point-contact type device, in which three metal “antennae” were in contact with a block of polycrystalline material. Thus, generations of computers began to improve already at that distant time.

The first types of computers that operated on the basis of transistors mark their appearance in the late 1950s, and by the mid-1960s external types of devices with more compact functions were created.

Architecture Features

One of the amazing abilities of the transistor is that it alone can carry out the work of 40 electronic type lamps, and even in this case have a high operating speed, generate a minimal amount of heat, and practically do not consume electrical resources and energy. Together with lamp replacement processes electric type Transistors have improved ways to store information. There was an increase in memory capacity, and magnetic tape, which was first used in the first generation UNIVAC computer, began to be used for both input and output of information.

In the mid-1960s, disk storage was used. Enormous types of advances in computer architecture have made it possible to achieve rapid actions of a million operations per second! For example, transistor computers of the 2nd generation of computers include “Stretch” (England), “Atlas” (USA). At that time, the Soviet Union also produced devices that were not inferior to the above-mentioned devices (for example, BESM-6).

The creation of computers, which are built with the help of transistors, has led to a reduction in their dimensions, weights, energy costs and prices, and also increased reliability and productivity. This contributed to expanding the range of users and the range of tasks to be solved. Taking into account the improved characteristics that the 2nd generation of computers had, developers began to create algorithmic types of languages ​​for engineering (for example, ALGOL, FORTRAN) and economic (for example, COBOL) types of calculations.

OS value

But even at these stages, the main task of programming technologies was to ensure resource savings - computer time and memory. To solve this problem, they began to create prototypes of modern operating systems (complexes of utility-type programs that provide good distribution of computer resources when executing user tasks).

Types of the first operating systems (OS) contributed to the automation of the work of computer operators, which is associated with the execution of user tasks: entering program texts into the device, calling the necessary translators, calling the library subroutines required for the program, calling the linker to place these subroutines and programs of the main type in the computer memory , entering data of the original type, etc.

Now, in addition to the program and data, it was also necessary to enter instructions into the second generation computer, which contained a list of processing stages and a list of information about the program and its authors. After this, a certain number of tasks for users began to be entered into the devices simultaneously (packages with tasks); in these types of operating systems, it was necessary to distribute the types of computer resources between these types of tasks - a multiprogram mode for data processing arose (for example, while the results of the task of one type, calculations are made for another, and data for a third type of problem can be entered into memory). Thus, the 2nd generation of computers went down in history with the appearance of streamlined operating systems.

Third generation of cars

Due to the development of technology for the production of integrated circuits (ICs), it was possible to achieve increases in fast action and reliability levels of semiconductor circuits, as well as reducing their size, power levels and cost. Integrated types of microcircuits consist of dozens of electronic elements, which are assembled in rectangular silicon wafers, and have a side length of no more than 1 cm. This type of wafer (crystals) is placed in a plastic case of small dimensions, the dimensions of which can only be determined using the number of “legs” "(terminals from the input and output of electronic circuits created on chips).

Thanks to these circumstances, the history of the development of computers (computer generations) has made big breakthrough. This made it possible not only to improve the quality of work and reduce costs universal devices, but also to create small-sized, simple, cheap and reliable machines - mini-computers. Such units were first intended to replace hardware-implemented controllers in the control loops of any objects, in automated systems process control of technological type, systems for collecting and processing data of experimental type, various control complexes at mobile objects, etc.

The main point at that time was considered to be the unification of machines with design and technological parameters. The third generation of computers begins releasing their series or families, compatible types models. Further leaps in the development of mathematical and software contribute to the creation of package-type programs for solvability of standard problems, problem-oriented program language(for solvability of problems of individual categories). This is how they are created for the first time software systems- types of operating systems (developed by IBM) on which the third generation of computers runs.

Fourth generation cars

Successful development electronic devices led to the creation of large integrated circuits (LSI), where one crystal had a couple of tens of thousands of electrical elements. This contributed to the emergence of new generations of computers, the elemental base of which had a large amount of memory and short cycles for executing commands: the use of memory bytes in one machine operation began to decrease sharply. But, since there were practically no reductions in programming costs, the tasks of saving human resources, rather than machine ones, were put to the fore.

New types of operating systems were created that allowed programmers to debug their programs directly behind the computer displays (in dialog mode), and this helped to facilitate the work of users and speed up the development of new software. This point was completely contrary to the concepts of the initial stages of information technology, which used first-generation computers: “the processor performs only that amount of data processing work that people fundamentally cannot perform - mass counting.” A different type of trend began to emerge: “Everything that can be done by machines, they must do; “People do only that part of the work that cannot be automated.”

In 1971, a large integrated circuit was manufactured, which completely housed the processor of an electronic computer of simple architectures. The possibilities for placing practically all electronic devices that are not complex in the computer architecture in one large integrated circuit (on one chip) have become real, that is, the possibility of serial production simple devices at affordable prices (not taking into account the cost of external devices). This is how the 4th generation of computers was created.

Many cheap (pocket keyboard computers) and control devices have appeared, which are equipped on one or several large integrated circuits containing processors, memory capacity and a system of connections with executive-type sensors in control objects.

Programs that controlled the supply of fuel to car engines, the movements of electronic toys or specified modes of washing clothes were installed in the computer memory either during the manufacture of similar types of controllers, or directly at enterprises that produce cars, toys, washing machines, etc.

During the 1970s, the production of universal computing systems, which consisted of a processor, memory capacity, interface circuits with an input-output device, located in a single large integrated circuit (single-chip computers) or in some large integrated circuits installed on a single printed circuit board (single-board units). As a result, when the 4th generation of computers became widespread, the situation that arose in the 1960s was repeated, when the first mini-computers took over part of the work in large universal electronic computers.

Characteristic properties of fourth generation computers

1. Multiprocessor mode.
2. Processing of parallel-sequential type.
3. High-level types of languages.
4. The emergence of the first computer networks.

Technical characteristics of these devices

1. Average signal delays 0.7 ns/v.
2. The main type of memory is semiconductor. The time it takes to generate data from this type of memory is 100-150 ns. Capacities - 1012-1013 characters.
3. Application of hardware implementation of operating systems.
4. Modular constructions have also begun to be used for software-type tools.

The personal computer was first created in April 1976 by Steve Jobs, an employee of Atari, and Stephen Wozniak, an employee of Hewlett-Packard. Based on integrated 8-bit electronic game controllers, they created the simplest one programmed for BASIC language, an Apple gaming computer that was a huge success. At the beginning of 1977 it was registered Apple company Comp., and from that time the production of the world's first personal computers, Apple, began. The history of the computer generation marks this event as the most important.

Currently Apple company is engaged in the production of Macintosh personal computers, which in most respects are superior to the types IBM computers PC.

PC in Russia

In our country, IBM PC types of computers are mainly used. This point is explained by the following reasons:

1. Until the early 90s, the United States did not allow the supply of advanced information technologies to the Soviet Union, which included powerful computers Macintosh.
2. Macintosh devices were much more expensive than IBM PCs (they are now about the same price).
3. A large number of application-type programs have been developed for the IBM PC, which makes them easier to use in a variety of areas.

Fifth type of computer generation

In the late 1980s, the history of the development of computers (computer generations) marks new stage- cars of the fifth generation appear. The emergence of these devices is associated with the transition to microprocessors. From the point of view of structural structures, maximum decentralization of management is characteristic, speaking about software and mathematical support - transitions to work in program area and shell.

Performance of the fifth generation of computers - 10 8 -10 9 operations per second. This type of units is characterized by a multiprocessor structure, which is created on simplified types of microprocessors, of which a plurality is used (decisive field or environment). Electronic computer types are being developed that are focused on high-level types of languages.

During this period, two opposing functions exist and are used: personification and collectivization of resources (collective access to the network).

Due to the type of operating system, which ensures ease of communication with fifth-generation electronic computers, huge base applied programs from various spheres of human activity, as well as low prices Computers are becoming an indispensable accessory for engineers, researchers, economists, doctors, agronomists, teachers, editors, secretaries and even children.

Development today

One can only dream about the sixth and newer generations of computer development. This includes neurocomputers (types of computers that are created based on neural networks). They cannot yet exist independently, but are actively simulated on modern computers.