Electronic equipment. Electronic circuit technologies

Now the world is ruled by electronics, which surround us literally everywhere. Science does not stand still; every year scientists present new developments in the field of electronic technologies. Many of them are tightly integrated into our daily lives.

Speeding up computers

American researchers have proven that instead of electric current Ultrashort laser flashes can be used to move individual electrons. This technology will make it possible to create quantum computers. They also plan to use the innovation in the field of quantum cryptography and to optimize chemical reactions.

The electron must be “pushed”, pumped with energy using pulses from a terahertz laser to the level of separation from the nucleus and the crystal begins to move along atomic bonds. Such laser systems are so fast that they can trap and hold electrons between two energy states.

Researchers from different countries have long sought to create special implants for living organisms. The fundamental difference is that they would not need to be surgically removed from the body after they have fully served their function.

Scientist Leon Bellan presented new development– a polymer that remains stable at temperatures above 32 degrees. A base is made from it, and a silver nanowire is inserted inside. The result is a primitive electrical circuit. While the polymer is on a warm stove in a pan, a current flows through the network. As soon as the tile is turned off, he turns into slime and the wire structure crumbles.

Using this principle, you can do, for example, medical devices to control sugar levels. The device is placed under the skin and operates while the doctor takes data. After applying ice, the device is destroyed. This is much more convenient than taking samples or wearing sensors.

Blue LEDs

Blue light from LEDs has pronounced antibacterial properties. This has been officially proven by scientists from the University of Singapore. If you combine it with refrigeration, then preservatives that are added to food become unnecessary.

The developers are confident that their discovery will become popular in fast food chains. After all, consumers have heard about the dangers of artificial additives, and food without them will definitely be in demand.

The greatest effect can be achieved if you combine blue light with a temperature of +4-+15 degrees and an acidic environment. Bacterial cells contain light-sensitive compounds that absorb light in the visible region of the electromagnetic spectrum. Accordingly, under such conditions, massive death of bacteria occurs.

"E-liquid"

Experimental studies with nanostructures have shown that electrons can “flow” like a liquid. Accordingly, it is possible to create ultra-fast “fluid” electronics.

According to the laws of physics, highest speed the destruction of electrons occurs during their encounter with other particles or atoms. A good example is an environment of complete vacuum, in which the trajectory of particles is similar to the flight of projectiles. But to date, no one has been able to simulate such conditions. According to physicists, such media can be carbon nanotubes or graphene sheets. However, for now this is only at the level of guesswork.

Pacemakers have one significant disadvantage - a limited service life. After seven years, you need to change tritium batteries, which are reaching the end of their service life. This means that repeated heart surgery is necessary to replace the power source.

Several countries are already developing batteries with more long term services. In Russia, this is done by scientists at the University of Chemical Technology. Active participation in this project The company "Advanced Nuclide Technologies" also accepts. The basis of the new battery is the radionuclide Ni 63. Its half-life is more than a hundred years. The invention can be used without replacement for 20 years, which will make life easier for many cardiac patients.

Everyone knows that cats and dogs have a unique sense of smell, which is able to recognize volatile chemicals released by humans during illness.

Scientists at the University of Cambridge decided to create a so-called “digital nose”. This is a spectrometer on a crystal microchip the size of a small coin. It is equipped with sensors tuned and calibrated to detect odors. If danger is suspected, the device will sound a signal. In the future, all information will be displayed on smartphone displays.

In addition to the medical industry, the “electronic nose” is of interest to the food industry. A number of large companies (Nestlé, Coca-Cola) want to use the invention to determine the freshness of products.

New transistors

An American university developed new design transistors. With their help, electronic devices can work for months or years. At the same time, energy consumption will be minimal, and perhaps they will function without batteries at all. They are planned to be used in the Internet of things and in devices that do not need to be connected to the network and recharged.

Thin nanowire

In the UK, the thinnest one-dimensional nanowire made of tellurium was created. Its thickness is only one atom. To make the structure of the product more durable, the developers introduced carbon nanotubes into it. Thus, the tellurium atoms end up in one chain.

Monoatomic nanowires hold great promise for miniaturizing microcircuits. This means that modern electronics can be significantly reduced in size.

At the University of California, it was decided to create efficient computer processors using electron vacuum tubes.

To produce the first tube computers, they took bulky vacuum tubes. Then transistors appeared, which made a real revolution in the field of radio electronics. But they also have a significant drawback - the impossibility of infinitely reducing the size of transistors. To make it happen further development, it was necessary to bring innovation in the form of electronic vacuum tubes. The fact is that when passing through a semiconductor, the current begins to slow down and lose its efficiency. Vacuum elements do not have this problem because current flows freely through them. Such transistors are ten times more efficient than their semiconductor counterparts. The developments are not finished yet; they are actively continuing in the direction of reducing the size of the lamps.

Leading manufacturers electronic technology decided to create flexible power supplies. Panasonic has developed lithium ion batteries 0.55 mm thick, designed for wearable devices (tablets, phones, cameras).

They have a special multilayer structure and a special electrode placement design. Copper acts as the anode, and aluminum acts as the cathode. They can be of various shapes, most often cylindrical. Due to their mechanical properties, they can be bent and twisted without loss of power. There are several models, the strength of some of them is a thousand turns and bends.

Flexible electrical circuits at 5G speed

All kinds of " smart bracelets"became very popular for Lately. They are constantly being upgraded and equipped with new features. Further global changes are coming very soon. America has already developed the world's most flexible electrical circuit. It has an unusual design - two lines intertwined in a chain, forming S-shaped bends. Thanks to this shape, the lines can stretch without loss of performance. In addition, they are well protected from external influences. Broadcast electromagnetic waves occurs in a certain frequency range – up to 40 GHz.

At Georgia Tech, engineers developed rectennas. They have a unique ability - capturing light and converting it into D.C.. This is done using vertical carbon nanotubes at the top of the silicon substrate.

Complex processes lead to the formation of a charge that converts alternating current into direct current. So far, the efficiency of the device is extremely low, but scientists are confident that in the near future it will be possible to reach higher levels.

Microchip based on the human brain

A unique development of American bioengineers is the NeuroCore microchip. It operates thousands of times faster than a personal computer. Innovation is based on the principle of the human brain.

Bioengineers have created a printed circuit board consisting of 16 microchips. It simulates the work of one million neurons and forms billions of synaptic connections. Energy consumption is minimal.

In the future, the developers plan to reduce the price of the board and create a compiler for the software.

Currently, developments are in full swing to create magnetic devices for storing data. It is a next-generation storage medium that could lead to the creation of atomically small computing machines.

The goal facing the researchers was to organize a certain movement of atoms. For example, at some point they need to stop rotating. This was achieved thanks to a combination of platinum, holmium and negative temperature. The quantum system is destabilized and the moment of the atom is preserved.

Electric unicycle

The innovation is an electric motor. Its body is made of impact-resistant plastic. The weight of a unicycle is on average 10-20 kg, and its height is half a meter.

It is equipped with a system of gyroscopes and control electronics to maintain the vehicle in vertical position. A person is only required to master the skill of maintaining balance on it. The wheel can change speed, regulate the position of the body in space, and give signals in case of danger on the road. It is easy to operate, maneuverable and safe.

The unicycle comes with a charger. The battery is charged by connecting to an outlet for a couple of hours.

Stanford University pioneered the development of a battery with an aluminum anode. It's durable, inexpensive, and can charge quickly. An aluminum-based battery with high stability was also presented. It uses a graphite foam cathode and an aluminum metal anode. Such batteries are very flexible, which will allow them to be used to create flexible gadgets.

Additional benefits:

• low cost;
• safety;
• ultra-fast charging;
• huge battery resource.

This is a promising material with good performance properties.

The main ones:

• resistance to alkalis, acids and low temperatures;
• high electrical resistance.

They are made from radiation-treated polyolephelins. Fluorine-containing elastomers, silicones, and polyvinyl chloride can also be used in production.

Types of heat-shrinkable materials:

• cable joints;
• heat shrink;
• cable guards;
• gloves;
• non-flammable tubes.

These materials are used in energy, instrument making, aircraft manufacturing, electrical engineering and many other industrial fields.

Almost all leading countries are developing and improving electronic technologies. The state and private investors are interested in the emergence of more and more innovations in this area, so they actively support the development of promising projects.

The book contains promising, original and easy-to-implement practical circuits using popular microcircuits of the K561, KR1006, NE556 and many others series. The described devices can be of practical use at home, in the country, in a car and can easily be made independently, without the use of special equipment and using a minimum of measuring instruments. Some devices are designed and tested specifically for use in rural areas, where the voltage in the lighting network and telephone line is not always stable. These devices are designed to protect household electrical appliances and computer equipment from voltage surges, as well as from lightning discharges.

Power supply with current up to 2 A.
Power supplies based on popular integrated stabilizers (hereinafter referred to as ICs) of the K142EN-xx series are widely known among radio amateurs. They work effectively in most amateur radio designs, where the load current consumption does not exceed 1-1.5 A. However, there is a large group of radio-electronic devices that require a stabilized voltage of 12-15 V and consume a current of more than 2 A. These are local heating elements, fans, coolers for local cooling, as well as integrated electronic and radio transmitting devices, such as automotive transceivers.

If the IC KR142EN5 with an output voltage of 5 V is capable of delivering a useful current of more than 1 A to the load in the appropriate thermal mode, then for its “brother” - KR142EN12B - the maximum current is 0.8 A (after which the IC goes into protection mode against short circuit, and the voltage at its output drops to 2-3 V).

Table of contents
To the reader
Security measures
Copyright
From the author
CHAPTER 1. ELECTRICAL DIAGRAMS AND DEVICES
1.1. Transformerless voltage regulator based on an integrated stabilizer
1.2. Power supply with current up to 2 A
1.3. Powerful source power supply for transceiver with current up to 15 A
1.4. Original power control unit
1.5. Audible overcurrent indicators
1.6. Overvoltage protection of the power supply output stage
1.7. Converter sound signal
1.8. Automatic parameter indicator
1.9. Voltage indicator
1.10. Radio wave detector
1.11. Signal delay devices
1.12. Light signal simulator burglar alarm
1.13. Thermally stable generator interruption
1.14. Three useful devices on the K561TL1 chip
1.15. Do-it-yourself “parking attendant” for a car based on an infrared signal
1.16. Another valet parking option
CHAPTER 2. USEFUL RECOMMENDATIONS FOR UPGRADES OF INDUSTRIAL EQUIPMENT AND MORE
2.1. Modification of an amateur radio transceiver
2.2. New portable smoke detector and its unusual uses
2.3. Addition to foreign consumer household appliances
2.4. New alarm device from a wireless bell with signal transmission via radio channel
2.5. Various schemes for modifying electronic toys
2.6. Simple automatic switching on PC peripherals
2.7. Economizer for a new LED lamp
2.8. Adjusting the output voltage in the power supply
2.9. Troubleshooting a Ham Radio Transmitter
2.10. How to make a sensitive temperature sensor
APPLICATIONS
Marking and interchange of SMD transistors
Permissible load on conductors
Options for enabling end nodes
Schemes for connecting polarized relays
General recommendations according to SEMR
Modern piezoelectric capsules and their connection circuits
Connection circuits for zener diodes and dinistors
Literature.

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Laser chips, flexible printed circuits, memristors and other technological wonders are just around the corner! Imagine a world where electronic devices charge themselves, music players that can play your entire audio collection, self-healing batteries and chips that change their capabilities on the fly. Judging by what American research laboratories are working on today, all this is not only possible, but also promising.

“The next five years are going to be a really exciting time in electronics,” says David Seiler, head of the semiconductor electronics division in the commercial division of the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) in Gaithersburg, Maryland. “Many things that today seem like distant science fiction will become widespread.”

So, are you ready to start your journey into the future of electronics? Many of the ideas we'll talk about today may sound fantastic, some may seem devoid of common sense, but what they all have in common is that they have already been tested in laboratories and have every chance of becoming commercial products in the next 5 years.

The main topic of this article is new developments in microprocessor technology - from processors that transmit data using lasers that replace wires, to circuits based on new materials that will replace traditional silicon. These technologies could become the building blocks for many new innovative products, some of which we cannot even imagine today.

Chips without wires: laser connection

Upon closer inspection, you can see that a typical microprocessor contains millions of thin wires that stretch in all directions to connect the active elements. Looking under the surface you will find five more wires. Jurgen Michel, a scientist at MIT's Microphotonics Center in Cambridge, intends to replace all these wires with pulses of germanium lasers that transmit data using infrared radiation.

“As the number of cores and components in processors increases, the interconnect wires become overloaded with data and become weak channel communications. Using photons instead of electrons improves the situation,” explains Michel.

By moving data at the speed of light, germanium lasers can transfer bits and bytes of information 100 times faster than moving electrons through wires. This is especially important for communication between processor cores and its memory. As well as fiber optic lines have improved the efficiency of phone calls, the use of lasers in microprocessors can take data processing to unprecedented heights.

The best part is that the MIT system does not require application inside processors huge amount thin cables. Instead, the chip contains many hidden tunnels and cavities through which light pulses travel and tiny mirrors and sensors transmit and interpret the data.

Combining traditional silicon electronics with optical components, known as silicon photonics, can make computers greener - friendlier to the environment. This is because lasers consume less energy than wires and emit less heat into the environment.

“Optoelectronics is the real holy grail,” Seiler says. - It allows you to expand the capabilities of electronics and at the same time provides great way reduce energy consumption because it does not contain wires, which are real heat sinks for the surrounding space.”

In February 2010, Michel and his colleagues, Lionel Kimerling and Jifeng Liu, successfully created and tested current scheme, which uses a built-in germanium laser for data transmission. The new chip achieved data transfer rates of over 1 TB/s, which is two orders of magnitude faster than today's best wired chips.

The new chip was created using modern semiconductor manufacturing technologies with some additions, so Michel believes that the transition to laser-based chips will occur within the next five years. If further tests are successful, MIT will license the manufacturing technology. Widespread use of the new type of chip is expected by 2015.

Moreover, by 2015, computers with 64-core processors are expected to appear, the cores of which will work independently and simultaneously.

“Connecting them with wires is a dead end,” says Michelle. “The use of a germanium laser has enormous potential and great advantages.”

Newest Circuits: Memristors

Your MP3 player is full of your favorites musical compositions and do you feel like a murderer by deleting this or that track? In this case, the memristors may arrive just in time.

These are the first fundamentally new electronic components after the creation of silicon transistors in the 50s of the last century. Memristors are a faster, longer-lasting, and potentially cheaper alternative to flash memory. They are also twice as capacious - a real treat for music lovers.

“If we decide to redefine computer technology today, we simply have to use memristor memory,” said R. Stanley Williams, lead researcher and head of the Quantum Science Research (QSR) group at HP Labs in Palo Alto. California. “This is the fundamental structure for future electronics.”

A memristor - in other words, a resistor with a memory - was first mentioned by University of California professor Leon Chua back in 1971. But HP Labs' memristor prototypes weren't publicly demonstrated until 2008.

To create memristors, HP uses alternating layers of titanium dioxide and platinum. Under electron microscope they appear as a series of long parallel projections. Below, at a right angle, the same layer is located, forming “cubes” with cell sizes of 2 x 3 nm.

The key point is that any two adjacent wires can be connected to an electrical switch under the surface, creating a memory cell. By varying the voltage applied to the cubes, scientists can open and close tiny electronic switches, storing data just like traditional flash memory chips.

The new type of memory is called ReRAM (Resistive Random Access Memory). These chips not only store twice as much data as flash, but are also 1,000 times faster and can withstand up to 1,000,000 write cycles, compared to 100,000 write cycles for standard flash memory. Additionally, ReRAM reads and writes data at comparable speeds, whereas flash memory takes much longer to write data than to read it.

HP and the South Korean company Hynix have entered into a cooperation agreement to establish mass production of ReRAM chips, which can be used in many portable devices such as multimedia players. But this means terabytes of music tracks, videos and e-books! The first products with new memory chips are expected on the market in 2013.

ReRAM will also replace dynamic random access memory in computers. Since ReRAM is non-volatile, it will not lose information when the system is turned off and will not consume power, unlike DRAM. According to Williams, the era is coming instant processing data. Today, users more often do not turn off their computers, but put them into sleep mode. But still for "awakening" computer technology it takes from a few seconds to a minute, and only after that access to the data will be restored. Devices using ReRAM are returning to working condition instantly.

Moreover, according to Williams, it is possible to place arrays of memristors on top of each other within the chip. This is the path to creating 3D memory, which will make it possible to more efficiently use the space inside the chip and fit much more memory into the same physical volume.

“There is no fundamental limit to the number of layers we can produce,” Williams explains. “In the next 10 years, we can create chips with petabyte-sized memory.” That's a million gigabytes of memory, enough to store enough high-definition video for a year of viewing. Moreover, the dimensions of the chip itself do not exceed the size of a human fingernail.

“Memory is only one of the possibilities for using memristors, but far from the only one. This technology has enormous potential,” says Seiler.

In the next 20 years, computer design may be redefined. In 2010, HP researchers discovered that memristors could be used for logic computing, not just data storage. This means that, in theory, both of these functions can be implemented on the same chip.

And again, Williams says: “A single memristor can replace many circuits, which in turn will simplify the architecture, design and operation of computers.” For example, a single memristor can replace six transistors used to create static RAM cells in the processor cache.

According to Williams, memristor technology will even make it possible to create artificial neural synapses that can imitate the functioning of the brain. Today these are only distant prospects, but the main thing is that they are possible in principle.

“Memristors have the potential to rewrite the rules of electronics,” says Supratik Guha, director of physical sciences at IBM. However, in his opinion, the technology requires further improvement. “They may have potential as memory elements,” he adds. “But like any technology, it must crawl before it walks and walk before it runs.”

In other words, memristor technologies will not appear unexpectedly. It will be a long time before memristors become as widespread as DRAM or flash memory.

Changeable chips: programmable layers

From the fastest processors to the smallest memory modules. Almost all chips used in modern electronics have one thing in common: their active elements are located in the top 1-2% of the silicon layer from which it is made.

This will change over the next few years as manufacturers try to cram as many components as possible into vertical layers. Some manufacturers, such as Intel, are using technology to bond individual chips, and scientists at the University of Rochester are creating multi-layer 3D structures inside chips. Both approaches are very complex and expensive.

Now, if only it were possible to force chips to rebuild their circuitry “on demand” in order to have several layers of active elements. This idea was embodied in Tabula's Spacetime technology and found its way into the ABAX chip architecture.

Instead of permanently imprinting multiple layers of permanent components into silicon, ABAX uses reprogrammable circuits that can change functions depending on user requirements. Today's manufacturer chips contain 8 different layers, the properties of which can be changed in the blink of an eye.

“It looks like a supermarket with eight floors,” explains Steve Tieg, head of technology at Tabula. “You use an escalator to move between floors.” But rather than creating eight separate physical floors with their own structure and product mix, Tabula demonstrated a way to create a single layer (or floor) that can be reconfigured depending on the needs.

“It's like while a customer is on an escalator, someone rearranges the floor to create the right level with the right products,” Teague adds. “The environment outside the escalator looks like the customer is on the eighth floor, but in fact there is one floor, simply changed to suit his needs.”

Reprogramming the chip into a working state takes only 80 picoseconds, 1000 times faster than the calculation cycle of a conventional chip. Thus, layers are changed almost on the fly while the chip is waiting next chain commands

Thus, ABAX chips allow you to do more with less. Made using traditional semiconductor manufacturing technology, Tabula ABAX chips cost the manufacturer about the same amount as conventional chips to produce. This design still uses only the top layers of the chip, but one layer serves as eight different chips. Teague says the technology can double circuit density and increase memory and video bandwidth by 3.5 times.

Today Tabula has concentrated its efforts on producing chips for special purposes. Such chips are the real “workhorses” of our time. They find application, for example, in wireless routers or equipment for cell towers.

Tabula's future plans are to set up the production of chips for popular electronic devices - digital cameras, game consoles, and maybe even for full-fledged computers. The current 8-layer chip design has already entered mass production, and Tabula is now working on creating a 12-layer version with the prospect of increasing the number of layers to 20.

“There is no limit to the number of layers we could integrate,” Teague noted.

From soot to circuits: graphenes

Over the past 45 years, the number of transistors in silicon computer processors has doubled every two years, proving that Moore's law works as reliably as the law of gravity. As the active elements of chips became smaller and cheaper to produce, they could be “squeezed” into final devices in ever-increasing quantities, which in turn increased the complexity, capabilities and ... power consumption of electronics.

But in fact, this path turned out to be a dead end. Scientists tried to fit even more transistors into a silicon chip, but at about 14 nm, difficulties began with further miniaturization of the elements. 14 nm is the size of two hemoglobin molecules in our blood, or about one thousandth the size of a talcum powder granule.

A substance called graphene inhaled new life into Moore's law, proven by silicon technology. Graphene is a layer of carbon atoms arranged in hexagonal cells. The thickness of such a layer is 1 atom. Under an electron microscope, graphene looks very much like a honeycomb.

“It not only looks strange, but also has unusual properties,” says Walt de Heer, head of the Georgia Institute of Technology's nanolab. - Graphene is a unique material of the future. It is fast, consumes little energy and can be used to make the smallest elements. Its capabilities are superior to silicon, it does what silicon cannot do. This is the future of electronics.”

Semiconductor researchers have been experimenting with graphene since the 1970s. But until recently, they were unable to create ultrathin layers of graphene hexagons. University of Manchester scientists Andre Geim and Konstantin Novoselov successfully created the first graphene layers in 2004 (for this and other achievements in graphene research, they were awarded the Nobel Prize in 2010). After this, graphene technologies began to develop rapidly.

In early 2011, de Geer's group created graphene wires - the first big step towards creating microchips. A wire thickness of about 10 nm was achieved by epitaxy - growing pure graphene on a silicon base. (Epitaxy is the process of growing a thin layer of a crystal on a substrate of another crystal (substrate), so that the grown layer repeats the structure of the substrate).

In the end, scientists were able to obtain electronic structures that are 1 nm thick and much faster than silicon. According to scientists' forecasts, the use of graphenes will make it possible to create processors with a frequency measured in terahertz - this is 20 times faster than the speed of modern silicon processors.

Next year, Georgia Tech scientists hope to complete a prototype chip embedded with graphene and test how the material's unique properties can be used to create microcircuits.

IBM scientists have created experimental transistors and integrated circuits based on graphenes using standard semiconductor production technologies. According to them, this can be considered the first step towards the use of graphene on an industrial scale.

“This area has enormous potential,” says IBM director of physical sciences Supratik Guha. - Graphenes will find application in the military industry and in wireless technologies, in addition, they can be integrated with silicon. Today, a lot of work needs to be done to demonstrate the possibility of creating amplifier circuits with high-quality integrated into them. active elements from graphene."

The first products using graphenes are expected to appear in 2013. Therefore, it is premature to expect super-fast laptops with graphene processors to appear in the near future. If such a technique does appear, it will be too expensive and can only be used in those areas where price does not matter compared to high speeds and low power consumption.

Also, the integrated circuits we are familiar with were once an “expensive pleasure” and were used only in the military industry and for other special purposes. The history in this area is that many things are introduced into the world as expensive and unavailable, and then become cheap and common. Graphenes have enormous potential; it is expected that they could become publicly available in the next 10 years.

Printed Circuits: Budget Chips

Standard semiconductor manufacturing technology includes whole line complex stages that are carried out in an absolutely clean room, where there is no dust or pollutants destructive to electronics. Xerox uses a simpler and cheaper method of producing electronics by printing circuits on a plastic base. The process involves using equipment that can cost thousands of dollars, but not the billions required to set up a traditional processor manufacturing plant.

"Conventional electronics are fast, small and expensive," says Jennifer Ernst, former director of business development at Xerox PARC Laboratory in Palo Alto, California. “By printing them directly onto plastic, PARC makes electronic components slow, large and cheap.”

PARC's circuit printing process requires little more effort than, for example, printing regular picture. All that is needed is special materials, such as silver ink, and the circuit itself is applied to flexible polyethylene wafers, rather than fragile silicon. In principle, the final product can hardly even be called a chip.

Adaptation various technologies printing, including ink injection, stamping and screen printing, PARC produces amplifiers, batteries and switches much less expensive than traditionally produced ones. And recently the company managed to set up production of 20-bit memory and controllers, which will go on sale next year.

Another interesting printed circuit project is an explosion detector that PARC developed for the U.S. Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA). Flexible printed circuits are being built into military helmets, where new sensors measure pressure, sound power, acceleration and light in combat environments.

After spending a week on the front line, the soldier returns and submits his helmet to a special laboratory, where the data obtained is carefully analyzed, and doctors conclude that there is a possibility of brain injury. These sensors do the job well and cost less than $1 compared to the $7 a traditional sensor costs.

Of course, printed circuits don't come close to competing with silicon when it comes to speed or the ability to pack billions of transistors into a small volume. But there are many applications where cost is much more important than performance. And at the beginning of 2012, printed circuits will begin to be used in toys and electronic games that require simple data processing - for example, speech synthesizers, as well as for controlling airbags in cars.

And by 2015, printed circuits can be found in other electronic products- flexible e-book readers that can be rolled into a tube like paper magazines or for the production of clothing from special fabrics with solar cells, which can be used to recharge mobile phone or music player.

Flexible printed circuit sales are projected to grow from $1 billion in 2010 to $45 billion in 2016, according to research firm IDTechEx. They will find application in a wide range of devices.

Printed electronics for low cost electronic systems. State of technology and equipment development.

Annotation. IN last years printing has become very interesting as a method of obtaining cheap and mass-produced electronic systems. Printing allows the use of entirely additive processes, thereby reducing process complexity and material consumption. Combined with the use of inexpensive substrates such as plastics, metal foils and so on, this predicts that printed electronics will enable the implementation of a wide range of easily deployable electronic systems, including displays, sensors and RFID (Radio Frequency IDentification) tags. We review our work in developing technology and equipment for printed electronics. By combining synthetically produced inorganic nanoparticles and organic materials, we have developed a range of printable electronics "inks" and are using them to demonstrate the printing of passive components, multilayers, diodes, transistors, memories, batteries and various gas analyzers and biosensors. Using printing capabilities, it is possible to cheaply integrate different functionalities and materials on a single substrate, so it is possible to implement printing systems, which use the advantages of printing, bypassing the disadvantages of it.

Introduction. In recent years, there has been a significant level of interest in using printing as a technology to realize low-cost, mass-market electronics. Printing is expected to make it possible to implement electronics on flexible, relatively low-cost substrates such as plastic and metallic foil. Cost and feasibility analysis of printing-based microelectronics suggests that printing could potentially enable the implementation of electronic systems on plastic at a significantly lower cost per unit area than conventional lithography-based ones. On the other hand, operating costs are expected to be higher based on the lower resolution of printed electronics. As a consequence, various potential applications for printed electronics are proposed: embedded displays, various types of sensors, and RFID. To implement these systems, it is, of course, necessary to develop the necessary “ink” that can be used to print inductors, capacitances, batteries, traces (connectors), resistors, transistors, diodes, memory units, sensitive elements and displays. In addition, the development of appropriate printing technologies is also required, including technologies for making the necessary thin layers uniform, controlling boundaries and combining layers. Thus, in this work, we analyze the current status and prospects for printed electronics. First, the viability of printing as a technology for realizing printed electronics is explored. Next, we'll look at the classes of printed materials we've developed for printed electronics. Finally, we review the state of the art in printed electronics devices and assess the needs for realizing viable printed electronics devices.

Printing technologies for electronics

Interest in printing as a means of implementing electronic systems has traditionally primarily stemmed from the fact that printing is expected to be a low-cost technology for implementing electronic systems. To test this claim, it is worth comparing print-based manufacturing technologies with traditional high-end microelectronics manufacturing technologies. Firstly, printing requires less capital investment compared to lithography. Interestingly, this is not true for conductor widths > 1 µm, because greatly reduces the cost of lithographic tools available in these modes; In addition, to achieve high uptime, low defectiveness of printing tools will require the development of new equipment for printed electronics, adding to the capital costs of this. Thus, it is not obvious that printing will reduce initial equipment costs. Secondly, printing promises to reduce the overall complexity of the process, since it can allow the use of entirely additive processes, instead of the subtractive processes required for lithography. This is a huge advantage because... This reduces the total number of operations, material costs, and overall equipment costs, therefore reducing capital investments and increasing the throughput of the entire flow. Third, printing can potentially take advantage of low-cost substrate processing and production automation because it allows the use of low-cost roll-to-roll or sheet-feed feed technologies. While this is likely to be true in the long term, the development of high-precision alignment tools is still a work in progress, and the results ultimately remain unclear. Considering material costs, substrate costs, capital cost estimates, and performance estimates, the economic viability of printed electronics can be concluded. This analysis suggests that printing should be cheaper per unit area than conventional electronics; The actual cost depends on the specific technological solutions used, but cost advantages of >10X times are quite real. On the other hand, the cost of one transistor in printed electronics is several orders of magnitude higher than the cost of one silicon transistor, due to the inferior track width (the best achievable track width in high-speed printing today is less than 10 μm). As a consequence, the cost-effectiveness can be summarized very simply - printed electronics are cost-effective in applications that are space-constrained, while they are not cost-effective in applications that are functionally density-constrained.

Various printing methods are available for use in electronics manufacturing. It is therefore useful to summarize the advantages and disadvantages of each of the broad classes of printing methods. The printing methods discussed here are screen printing (silk-screen printing), inkjet printing, stamping (embossing)/nanoimprinting (a method of pressing a template with nano-sized elements into a layer of material) and intaglio printing (intaglio). Other printing methods exist, but are generally not used in the manufacture of printed electronics.

Screen printing is perhaps the most mature technology for producing printed electronics. Screen printing is used for production printed circuit boards for decades. In screen printing, viscous ink is “pressed” through a stencil using a staple. The image on the stencil is usually formed using a photosensitive coating. Screen printing is widely used in electronics because... it is used to template traces of conductors (usually silver pastes are used), resistances (carbon films are used), capacitors (polyimide dielectrics are used), etc., in the production of printed circuit boards. The resolution of commercial high-speed screen printing equipment is typically worse than >50 µm, although in studies silkscreen printing has been used to achieve printing in the <1000 cP (centipoise) range to prevent excessive smearing and excess binder. This is problematic for some materials in printed electronics. High ink viscosity is usually achieved by adding polymer binders to the ink. While this is not a serious problem for printing, it can be a serious problem for printed electronics, since such binders can destroy the functionality of semiconductors, introduce excessive leakage and loss in dielectrics, or degrade the conductivity of conductors. As a result, the use of screen printing is generally limited to products where binders can be added without critical loss of performance. For example, silver paste binders are commonly used in screen printing. While the conductivity is reduced relative to the pure silver layer, it is still acceptable for specified applications (eg thin layer membrane switches, automotive keypads, etc.). Screen printing has been applied in some limited printed electronics applications such as conductor printing, etc.

The most widely used technology for printing active electrical diagrams today it is inkjet printing. Inkjet printing allows the use of low viscosity ink (1-20cP); this is extremely important because allows the development of inks that contain only the active substance and solvent, without a binder. Combined with digital data input, which allows design changes on the fly, inkjet printing dominates research into printed transistors, etc. On the other hand, the production of viable inkjet printing not yet determined. Firstly, inkjet printing, being a drop-by-drop (drop by drop) technique, is a head with strictly pixelated emission, in which the drying phenomenon is combined with drops, can produce a variety of variations of the printed pattern. This issue will be discussed below. Secondly, inkjet printing is generally slow, and high throughput is only achieved by using a large number of heads working in parallel. This, in turn, presents a productivity problem due to the failure of individual heads when printing a design. Thirdly, there is a “cone of uncertainty”, depending on the angle of the droplet ejection from the nozzle; this is typically 10 µm, the result of ±3σ variation in placement when dropped from height. This in turn introduces edge roughness line and placement limits into the design scaling rules.

Drying phenomena associated with inkjet printing are especially important because... Smooth, thin layers with low edge roughness are very important for the realization of printed devices. An integral part of drying drops is the so-called “coffee ring” effect. In this drop drying effect, there is a strong migration of material from the center of the drop to the edges of the drop due to strong convective forces associated with the evaporation of the solvent from the drop. Depending on the relative evaporation and convective currents, the droplet dries and this allows a ring-shaped final layer to form as a result, as shown in Figure 1. This is obviously a serious problem for printed electronics because The large thickness variation inherent in vias and sharp edges contribute to the unsuitability of the layer shape. The effects of drying on the formation line are clearly visible in Figure 2, which shows changes in the morphology (the science of shape and structure) of the line depending on the distance between droplets in the printed line. All other parameters remain the same. Clearly, simply changing one parameter has a large impact on the morphologies of the printed line, again due to the strong convective forces associated with droplet drying.

The origin of changes in the printed line can be easily understood by considering the convective forces associated with drying (Figure 3). When a droplet is added to the end of an already formed line, convective forces cause the droplet's fluid to be transported towards the connecting point to the line. If the spacing between droplets is too large, then the connection is too small to support the transfer, and the result is that the droplets dry to a solid line as shown in Figure 2.1. If the distance is a little closer, then the same materials are pulled into a line, but the limited connection interferes with the transfer, as a result of drying/gelling of the drop, a jagged line is formed instead of a smooth sidewall (Figure 2.2). If the interval between drops is reduced further, then actually smooth continuous line edges can be formed (Figure 2.3). However, if you reduce the spacing between drops even further, the connection point between the line and the drop becomes too large and an excessive amount of material from the drop is transferred into the line. The line cannot withstand the amount transferred and, therefore, overflowing, becomes convex. Increasing the cross-section of the convexity allows further fluid transfer, and thus the isthmus recedes again, only increasing as the resistance to fluid transfer falls. This leads to the formation of periodic bulges on the line (Figure 2.4). Now it is clear why the morphology of the line is difficult to control, and the technological process for the same reason is complex, but interesting. A solution to the problem that is commonly adopted by many authors involves a "fast drying" line such that the droplets dry very quickly upon touching the substrate. Lines of this shape consist of individually dried drops overlapping each other (Figure 2.5.). Unfortunately, such lines suffer from poor film thickness uniformity and limited feature size scalability.

The pixelated nature of inkjet printing, low productivity and production challenges have sparked interest in alternative printing technologies.

IF YOU LEAVE YOUR HOME, YOU OFTEN ASK THE QUESTION:
“Did I turn off the iron, curling iron, stove?”
“Did I turn off the TV and lights?”
IF YOU NEED TO KNOW:
- presence of excessive consumption of resources;
- fact of theft of electricity;
- monitoring the quality of electricity (voltage and current), whether there were voltage surges or sags, etc.

THIS COUNTER IS CREATED JUST FOR YOU!!

What do you get with a smart meter?
. Online monitoring and smart notifications.
. Saving without effort. Analyze your consumption and switch to the optimal electricity payment tariff.
. Control over a remote object. Be aware of what is happening at your dacha, cottage or rental apartment.
. Full automation accounting process.
. Opportunity automatic sending indications in energy sales.
. The accuracy of measurements of network parameters complies with the requirements of GOST 30804.4.30-2013
. Installation is completely similar to installing a conventional meter.
. There is no need to install additional equipment.

In June 2017, Electric introduces new series sockets and switches series Blanca and this socket is part of this series. A few words about this series to finish this topic for those interested.

Company opens the next chapter in the history of electrical engineering: transformers and major equipment are being tested in China for the world's first 1,100 kilovolt (kV) project. The company has set a new innovation record by successfully testing the low-voltage and high-voltage units of the world's most powerful ultra-high voltage direct current (UHVDC) transformer. The +/- 1,100 kV (1.1 million volt) UHVDC transformer, designed and manufactured in close cooperation with the State Grid Corporation of China (SGCC), has successfully passed a series of type tests, paving the way for the implementation of ultra-high-voltage DC power lines. Changji-Guguang voltage, which will transmit electricity from the Xinjiang region in the northwest to Anhui province in eastern China. Changji-Guguang, the world's first ultra-high voltage direct current (UHVDC) transmission line of +/- 1,100 kV, will set a new world record for voltage, capacity and distance.

We invite you to take part in our regular open webinars!
The next series of webinars will be devoted to the topic “Modular equipment”.
With the help of webinars on modular equipment, you will get acquainted with devices that protect electrical networks and consumers from overload and short circuit currents, electric shock and surge voltages in the network, and allow remote control electrical networks and loads. From webinars on this product group you will learn about the operating principles, range and application of IEK® modular equipment.

D-Life- a line of switches for controlling household lighting.

The device allows you to connect using Bluetooth and configure operation through the Wiser Room application, available in the AppStore and Google Play.

The switches are characterized by quality and are combined with a premium series in design. Allow control via mobile app. Connecting via Bluetooth allows you to set a timer, turn the lighting device on or off, and reduce its intensity.

Digital industrial voltammeter VAR-M01 designed for technological monitoring of voltage and current values ​​in electrical circuits alternating current, both in industrial zones and in housing and communal services, the household sector, and other national economic facilities. Can be used as part of automated monitoring and control systems for technological processes as a main or additional indicator on mobile and stationary objects. It is a means of control. Not subject to periodic verification.

Digital voltmeters VR-M01 and VR-M02 are designed to control the voltage level in alternating current electrical circuits, both in industrial areas and in housing and communal services, the domestic sector, and other national economic facilities. Can be used as part of automated monitoring and control systems for technological processes as a main or additional indicator on mobile and stationary objects.

Engineers from Kyoto University have developed and assembled the first device that is capable of storing and storing electromagnetic radiation while maintaining its phase properties. A description of the “trap” is posted as a preprint in the archives of Cornell University, and a brief structure of it is described by the Technology Review blog.

American physicists created the new kind carbon nanotubes suitable for use as a material for weaving ultra-strong and electrically conductive “threads”, and published instructions for their creation in the journal Science.

“We have finally managed to create a nanotube fiber with properties that no other material has. It is similar to ordinary black cotton thread, but combines the properties of metal wires and strong carbon tubes,” said the leader of the physics team, Matteo Pasquali ( Matteo Pasquali) from Rice University in Houston (USA).

Acti9 is the 5th generation of modular systems from Electric. The previous, 4th generation was the Multi9 series, which became the world's most famous product in its class. Multi9 appeared many years ago with the release of the C32 series (then C45). The long-term popularity of this range is even evidenced by the fact that most Chinese-made devices on the Russian market are copies of the C32 and C45 devices (3rd generation of modular systems from Electric).

The new generation Compact NSX circuit breakers, made in a molded case, in a molded case, are used for currents from 100 to 630 A at facilities of absolutely any scale and purpose - from office buildings to the largest enterprises. Compact NSX circuit breakers from Electric are used to protect distribution networks, long cables, electric motors and generators.

The flow of current in conductors is always associated with energy losses, i.e. with the transfer of energy from electric type in thermal form. This transition is irreversible; the reverse transition is associated only with the performance of work, as thermodynamics says. There is, however, the possibility of converting thermal energy into electrical energy using the so-called. thermoelectric effect, when two contacts of two conductors are used, one is heated and the other is cooled.

In 1996, engineer Roy Kuennen was struggling with a solution to a problem: how to make a household water filter manufactured by Amway Corp. didn't it break? The filter killed bacteria using an ultraviolet lamp, but to do this it had to be immersed in water. The wires that supplied the lamp with electricity were rusting. Then engineer Kuennen had a crazy idea: remove the wires and power the lamp remotely - using a magnetic coil.

While Kuennen was struggling with the water filter, the wireless revolution was already in full swing - having begun in the 90s, it gave us cellular telephone, Bluetooth and Wi-Fi, but only in recent years has it expanded into the area of ​​power. Several companies are now looking at ways to supply power to mobile phones, PDAs, laptops and other gadgets directly, without having to plug them into the grid.

At the end of the 19th century, the discovery that electricity could make a light bulb glow sparked an explosion of research to find the best way transmission of electricity.

The race was led by the famous physicist and inventor Nikola Tesla, who developed a grandiose project. Unable to believe in the reality of creating a colossal network of wires covering all cities, streets, buildings and rooms, Tesla came to the conclusion that the only feasible method of transmission was wireless. He designed a tower approximately 57 meters high, which was supposed to transmit energy over a distance of many kilometers, and even began building it on Long Island. A number of experiments were carried out, but lack of money did not allow the tower to be completed. The idea of ​​transmitting power over the air dissipated as soon as it turned out that industry was able to design and implement a wired infrastructure.

Everyone knows that no one is immune from the consequences of storms, hurricanes, storms and other natural disasters. Therefore, it is worth soberly realizing that the next downpour can equally likely leave both a small office and a huge corporation without power. What to do in case of a cable break or some kind of failure? Call electricians? Or rent a robot that will do all the work on its own much faster, and perhaps with better quality. Fiction, would you say? Of course, who will develop electric robots if there are more interesting areas applications of these silicon creatures. And you don’t have to go far - robot singers and bartenders, nannies and teachers, doctors, toys. And this is where I disagree.

Scientists have created a robot that, in autonomous mode, will independently be able to check or diagnose many kilometers of power cable, identify problems, and perhaps even identify “preliminary” faults that could cause problems in the network in the future.

Professor, electronics engineer Alexander Mamishev told the press that such a development is the first in the industry...

The specifics of the development of modern civilization, especially in the last ten years, are radically changing our lives. Two trends deserve the most attention.

The first is the rapid development of everything related to computer technology. This is not only a computer in every home and workplace, not only the Internet and “toys”. If you look more closely, we have all been hostages for a long time computer technology. Almost any device now includes a control chip, which in principle is the same small computer. This is both TV and washing machine, and a mobile phone, and a camera, and a key fob for the car, and the car itself...

Now there are about 60 in my office at work! processor controllers... This is already very serious! If previously a microprocessor cost tens and hundreds of dollars, now you can buy a control chip for less than a dollar!

The second trend is the rising cost of energy resources and everything related to the mining industry...

Economic efficiency The use of thermoelectric refrigerators in comparison with other types of refrigeration machines increases the more, the smaller the volume of the cooled volume. Therefore, it is currently most rational to use thermoelectric cooling for household refrigerators, in coolers of food liquids, air conditioners; in addition, thermoelectric cooling is successfully used in chemistry, biology and medicine, metrology, as well as in commercial refrigeration (maintaining temperature in refrigerators) , refrigerated transport (refrigerators), and other areas

In technology, the effect of the occurrence of thermoEMF in soldered conductors, the contacts (junctions) between which are maintained at different temperatures (Seebeck effect), is widely known. When a direct current is passed through a circuit of two dissimilar materials, one of the junctions begins to heat up and the other begins to cool. This phenomenon is called the thermoelectric effect or Peltier effect...

One of the main directions for the development of science is theoretical and experimental research in the field of superconducting materials, and one of the main directions for the development of technology is the development of superconducting turbogenerators.

Superconducting electrical equipment will dramatically increase the electrical and magnetic loads in device elements and thereby dramatically reduce their size. In a superconducting wire, a current density that is 10...50 times higher than the current density in conventional electrical equipment is permissible. Magnetic fields can be increased to values ​​of the order of 10 Tesla, compared to 0.8...1 Tesla in conventional machines.

Magnetoplane or Maglev(from the English magnetic levitation) is a train on a magnetic suspension, driven and controlled by magnetic forces. Such a train, unlike traditional trains, does not touch the rail surface during movement. Since there is a gap between the train and the moving surface, friction is eliminated, and the only braking force is the force of aerodynamic drag.

The speed achievable by Maglev is comparable to the speed of an airplane and allows it to compete with air communications at short (for aviation) distances (up to 1000 km). Although the idea of ​​such transport is not new, economic and technical limitations have prevented it from being fully developed: the technology has only been implemented for public use a few times. Currently, Maglev cannot use the existing transport infrastructure, although there are projects with the location of magnetic road elements between the rails of a conventional railway or under the highway.

Hitachi has developed a new technology for generating electricity using vibrations naturally occurring in the air with an amplitude of several micrometers.

HITACHI has developed a new technology for generating electric current by using the natural processes of vibrations occurring in the air, which pass with an amplitude of a couple of micrometers. Although this technology provides very low electrical voltage, there is very great interest in it due to the fact that such generators can operate in any weather and environmental conditions, which, for example, solar panels cannot boast of...

German theorists from the University of Augsburg have proposed an original model of an electric motor operating on the laws of quantum mechanics. A specially selected external alternating magnetic field is applied to two atoms placed in a ring-shaped optical lattice at a very low temperature. One of the atoms, which scientists called the “carrier,” begins its movement along the optical lattice and after some time reaches a constant speed, the second atom plays the role of a “starter” - thanks to the interaction with it, the “carrier” begins its movement. The entire design is called a quantum atomic engine.

Technological progress in the LED industry. What is the secret of new ones working longer? LED lamps for room lighting?

The market for LED technology is growing rapidly and the range is filled with various new products. In general, for LED lighting technology this market niche is an unplowed field. After all, the elements themselves, LEDs, are practically durable, mainly due to low heat transfer and low consumption; they operate on average 50,000 hours, namely 5 years. This makes it possible to assemble ready-made equipment, where it is not necessary to provide for the dimensions of the light bulbs or the possibility of replacing light elements, so that LEDs can be turned into light bulbs, spotlights, lamps, in a free artistic form and format, they can be combined with colors, they can enhance the precision with the help of optical lenses...