Architecture of computers and computing systems. Maksimov N.V. etc. List of laboratory classes. Control forms, list of questions to be tested

Since the mid-60s, the approach to creating computers. Instead of independent development of hardware and some software, a system began to be designed consisting of a set of hardware And software funds. At the same time, the concept of their interaction came to the fore. This is how a fundamentally new concept arose - computer architecture.

Under computer architecture is understood as a set of general principles of hardware organization software and their characteristics, which determines the functionality of the computer when solving the corresponding classes of problems.

Computer architecture covers a wide range of problems associated with the construction of a complex of hardware and software and taking into account many factors. Among these factors, the most important are: cost, scope of application, functionality, ease of use, and one of the main components of the architecture is hardware. The main components of the computer architecture can be represented in the form of a diagram shown in Fig. 1.2.

Rice. 1.2. Main components of computer architecture

The architecture of a computing facility should be distinguished from its structure. The structure of a computing tool determines its specific composition at a certain level of detail (devices, blocks, nodes, etc.) and describes the connections within the tool in its entirety. The architecture determines the rules for the interaction of the components of a computing tool, the description of which is carried out to the extent necessary for the formation of the rules for their interaction. It does not regulate all connections, but the most important ones that must be known for more competent use of this tool.

Thus, the computer user does not care on what elements the electronic circuits are made, whether commands are implemented in circuits or software, etc. What is important is how certain structural features of the computer are related to the capabilities provided to the user, what alternatives are implemented when creating the machine and according to what criteria decisions were made on how the characteristics of the individual devices that make up the computer are related to each other, and what impact they have on the overall characteristics of the machine. In other words, computer architecture really reflects a range of problems related to the general design and construction of computers and their software.

Only 100 years later, on the basis of emerging electronic devices, this idea was developed by the American mathematician John von Neumann. The construction of the vast majority of computers is based on the following general principles, formulated by him in 1945.

First of all, the computer must have the following devices:

Arithmetic-logical device, performing arithmetic and logical operations;

Control device , which organizes the process of program execution;

Memory device , or memory for storing programs and data;

External devices for input/output of information.

The operation of a computer is based on the following principles:

Binary coding principle . According to this principle, all information entering the computer is encoded using binary signals.

Program control principle . It follows from it that the program consists of a set of commands that are executed by the processor automatically one after another in a certain sequence.

The principle of memory homogeneity . Programs and data are stored in the same memory. Therefore, the computer does not distinguish what is stored in a given memory cell - a number, text or command. You can perform the same actions on commands as on data.

Targeting principle . Structurally, main memory consists of numbered cells; Any cell is available to the processor at any time.

Machines built on these principles are called Von Neumann machines.

Types of computer architecture (open, closed, Harvard).

Computer architecture is the conceptual structure of a computer that determines information processing and includes methods for converting information into data and principles for the interaction of hardware and software

Closed architectures

A computer made according to this architecture does not have the ability to connect additional devices not provided by the developer.

An enlarged diagram of such a computer architecture is shown in Fig. 1. RAM stores commands and data of executable programs. The channel allows the connection of a certain number of external devices. The control device ensures the execution of program commands and controls all system nodes.

Rice. 1. Closed computer architecture

Computers of this architecture are effective in solving purely computing tasks. They are poorly suited for implementing computer technologies that require connecting additional external devices and high-speed information exchange with them.

Open architecture computing systems

This architecture allows you to freely connect any peripherals, which provides free connection to the computer of any number of sensors and actuators. Devices were connected to the bus in accordance with the bus standard. The architecture of an open type computer, based on the use of a common bus, is shown in Fig. 2.

Rice. 2. Open computer architecture

The overall control of the entire system is carried out by the central processor. It manages the shared bus, allocating time for other devices to exchange information. The storage device stores executable programs and data and matches its signal levels to the signal levels of the bus itself. External devices whose signal levels differ from the bus signal levels are connected to it through a special device - a controller. The controller matches device signals with bus signals and controls the device based on commands coming from central processor. The processor has special control lines, the signal on which determines whether the processor is accessing a memory cell or an I/O port on an external device controller.

Despite the advantages provided by the common bus architecture, it also has a serious drawback, which became increasingly apparent as the performance of external devices increased and the flow of information exchange between them increased. Devices with different volumes and exchange rates are connected to the common bus, and therefore the “slow” devices delayed the work of the “fast” ones. A further increase in computer performance was found in the introduction of an additional local bus to which “fast” devices were connected. The architecture of a computer with general and local buses is shown in Fig. 3.

Rice. 3. Computer architecture with shared and local bus

The bus controller analyzes the port addresses transmitted by the processor and passes them on to the controller connected to the public or local bus.

Structurally, the controller of each device is placed on a common board with a central processor and a storage device or, if the device is not standardly included in the computer, on a special board inserted into special connectors on the common board - expansion slots. Further development of microelectronics made it possible to place several functional components of a computer and controllers of standard devices in one VLSI chip. This reduced the number of chips on the common board and made it possible to introduce two additional local buses for connecting a storage device and a display device, which have the largest volume of exchange with the central processor and among themselves.

The central controller plays the role of a switch that distributes information flows between the processor, memory, display device and other computer nodes.

A functional controller is a VLSI that contains controllers for connecting standard external devices such as a keyboard, mouse, printer, modem, etc. Often this controller includes a device such as an audio card, which allows you to get external speakers High quality sound when listening to music and speech files.

Harvard architecture

Harvard architecture was developed by Howard Aiken in the late 1930s at Harvard University with the goal of increasing the speed of computing operations and optimizing memory performance.

Typical operations (addition and multiplication) require any computing device to perform several actions: fetch two operands, select an instruction and execute it, and finally store the result. The corresponding scheme for implementing memory access has one obvious drawback - high cost. When separating the address and data transmission channels on the processor chip, the latter must have twice as many pins. A way to solve this problem was the idea of using a common data bus and an address bus for all external data, and using a data bus, a command bus and two address buses inside the processor. This concept came to be called modified Harvard architecture.

Often it is necessary to select three components - two operands and an instruction (in digital signal processing algorithms this is the most common task in FFT and FIR, IIR filters). This is what cache memory is for. An instruction can be stored in it - both buses remain free, and it becomes possible to transmit two operands simultaneously. The use of cache memory along with split buses is called "Super Harvard Architecture" ("SHARC") - an extended Harvard architecture.

An example is the Analog Devices processors: ADSP-21xx - modified Harvard Architecture, ADSP-21xxx(SHARC) - extended Harvard Architecture.

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND SCIENCE OF THE RF

FEDERAL EDUCATION AGENCY

SARAPUL INDUSTRIAL AND ECONOMIC TECHNIQUE

SPECIALTY 230103

TEST

IN THE DISCIPLINE "COMPUTER AND VS ARCHITECTURE"

IS DONE BY A STUDENT

GR. ASU-31SZ SUKHIKH A.V.

CHECKED

TEACHER GABBASOVA F.F.

Sarapul

2005 – 2006 academic year year

1. MULTI-MACHINE COMPUTING SYSTEM.............................. 3

2. CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS BY PURPOSE AND FUNCTIONAL CAPABILITIES............................................. ................................... 6

3. FUNCTIONAL DIAGRAMS OF LOGICAL ELEMENTS...... 10

1. MULTI-MACHINE COMPUTING SYSTEM

Computer system (CS) – a set of interconnected and interacting processors or computers, peripheral equipment and software designed for collecting, storing, processing and distributing information.

The creation of the Armed Forces pursues the following main goals:

· increasing system performance by accelerating data processing processes;

· increasing the reliability and reliability of calculations;

· providing users with additional services etc.

A distinctive feature of the computer in relation to classical computers is the presence in it of several computers that implement parallel processing .

Parallelism of operations significantly increases system performance; it can also significantly increase both reliability (if one component of the system fails, another can take over its functions) and the reliability of the system’s functioning if operations are duplicated and the results of their execution are compared.

Parallelism in computing in to a large extent complicates the management of the computing process, the use of technical and software resources. These functions are performed by the operating system of the aircraft.

Despite the fact that it is classic multi-machine BC option, in the BC there can be only one computer, but aggregated with multifunctional peripheral equipment (the cost of peripheral equipment is often many times higher than the cost of the central devices of the computer). A computer can have several processors (then there is also a classic multiprocessor version of the computer) or one processor (if you do not take into account the specialized processors that are part of the peripheral devices).

In a multi-machine computing system, several processors included in the computing system do not have a common RAM, but each have their own (local). Each computer in a multi-machine system has classical architecture, and such a system is used quite widely. However, the effect of using such a computing system can only be obtained by solving problems that have a very special structure: it must be divided into as many loosely coupled subtasks as there are computers in the system.

2. CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS BY PURPOSE AND FUNCTIONAL CAPABILITIES

An electronic computer (computer), a computer, is a set of technical means designed for automatic information processing in the process of solving computational and information problems.

Computers can be classified according to a number of characteristics, in particular:

· physical representation processed information;

· generations (stages of creation and element base);

· areas of application and methods of use (as well as size and computing power).

According to the areas of application and methods of use, computers can be divided into the following groups(Fig. 2.1).

Rice. 2.1. Classification by areas of application and methods of use

3. FUNCTIONAL DIAGRAMS OF LOGIC ELEMENTS

A computer logic element is a part of an electronic logic circuit that implements an elementary logical function.

The logical elements of computers are electronic circuits AND, OR, NOT, NAND, NOR and others (also called gates), as well as a flip-flop.

Using these circuits, you can implement any logical function that describes the operation of computer devices. Typically, valves have two to eight inputs and one or two outputs.

To represent the two logic states “1” and “0” in the gates, their corresponding input and output signals have one of two set voltage levels. For example, +5 volts and 0 volts.

A high level usually corresponds to the value “true” (“1”), and a low level to the value “false” (“0”).

Each logical element has its own symbol, which expresses its logical function, but does not indicate what kind of electronic circuit is implemented in it. This makes it easier to write and understand complex logic circuits.

The operation of logical elements is described using truth tables.

The truth table is table view a logic circuit (operation) that lists all possible combinations of the truth values of the input signals (operands) along with the truth value of the output signal (result of the operation) for each of these combinations.

Scheme I

An AND circuit implements the conjunction of two or more Boolean values.

The symbol on the block diagrams of an AND circuit with two inputs is shown in Fig. 3.1. The truth table is in table 3.1.

Rice. 3.1

Table 3.1

x	y	xy
0	0	0
0	1	0
1	0	0
1	1	1

There will be a one at the output of the AND circuit if and only if there are ones at all inputs. When at least one input is zero, the output will also be zero.

The relationship between the output z of this circuit and the inputs x and y is described by the relation: z = xy (read as "x and y").

The conjunction operation on functional diagrams is indicated by the sign “&” (read as “ampersand”), which is an abbreviation of the English word and.

OR circuit

An OR circuit implements the disjunction of two or more logical values.

When at least one input of the OR circuit is one, its output will also be one.

The symbol for the OR circuit is shown in Fig. 3.2. The sign “1” in the diagram comes from the outdated designation of disjunction as “>=1” (i.e., the value of the disjunction is equal to one if the sum of the values of the operands is greater than or equal to 1). The relationship between the output z of this circuit and the inputs x and y is described by the relationship: z = x v y (read as "x or y"). Truth table - in table. 3.2.

Rice. 3.2

Table 3.2

x	y	x v y
0	0	0
0	1	1
1	0	1
1	1	1

SCHEMA NOT

The NOT (inverter) circuit implements the negation operation. The relationship between the input x of this circuit and the output z can be written as z =

, where read as "not x" or "inverse of x".

If the circuit input is 0, then the output is 1. When the input is 1, the output is 0. The inverter symbol is in Figure 3.3, and the truth table is in Table. 3.3.

Rice. 3.3

Table 3.3

x
0	1
1	0

	Extract from GOS SPO
	Explanatory note
	Goals and objectives of the discipline
	Requirements for the level of mastery of the discipline content
	Scope of discipline and types of academic work
	Sections (topics) of the discipline
	Educational – methodological support disciplines
	Material and technical support of the discipline
	Control forms, list of questions to be tested

1. Extract from the State Educational Standard

OPD.00

General professional disciplines

OPD.05

Architecture of computers and computing systems:

presentation of information in computer systems; architecture and principles of operation of the main logical blocks of computer systems; internal organization of the processor; processor registers; organization and principle of memory; physical, linear, page, segment and virtual memory; cache memory; protected operating mode; memory management; types of addressing; tire structure and types of tires; multitasking; processor architectures; interaction with peripheral devices, organization and operating modes of the processor; basic processor commands, processor duty cycle, use of interrupts, debugger programs; types of computing systems and their architectural features, parallelism and pipelining of calculations, classification of computing platforms, advantages and disadvantages of personal types computing systems

2. Explanatory note

The program of the academic discipline “Computer Architecture and Computer Systems” is designed to implement state requirements for the minimum content and level of training of graduates in the specialtyApplied Informaticssecondary vocational education and is uniform for all forms of education.

The academic discipline “Computer Architecture and Computer Systems” is a general professional discipline that forms the basic level of knowledge for mastering special disciplines.

The teaching of the discipline should have a practical orientation and be carried out in close connection with general professional disciplines: “Operating systems and environments”, “Fundamentals of algorithmization and programming”, “Discrete mathematics”, “ Technical means informatization".

The working curriculum for this discipline defines: theoretical training 54 hours, practical and laboratory classes 30 hours, independent work 24 hours, intermediate certification is established in the form of a test at the end of the fourth semester and in the form of an exam at the end of the fifth semester.

3. Goals and objectives of the discipline

The purpose of the course is to develop students' understanding of the structure and architecture of modern PCs. The purpose of practical classes is for students to acquire skills in practical work with PC components. The objectives of the course include consideration of all the components of a PC and the principles of their operation. The objective of practical classes is direct practical familiarization with PC components and the rules for working with them, as well as consideration of some aspects of diagnosing possible faults and ways to eliminate them.

4. Requirements for the level of mastery of the discipline content

As a result of studying the discipline, the student must

have an idea:

about the role and place of knowledge in the discipline in the field of professional activity;
about the main problems and prospects for the development of computers and computing systems;

know:

types of information and methods of its presentation in a computer;
classification and typical units computer technology(VT);
architecture of electronic computers and computing systems;
purpose and principles of operation of individual architectural configurations;

be able to:

choose a rational equipment configuration in accordance with the task being solved;
ensure compatibility of VT hardware and software.

5. Scope of discipline and types of academic work

Type of educational work	Total hours	Semesters

Total labor intensity of the discipline
Auditory lessons
Theoretical training

Independent work
Preparation for the test
Exam preparation
Type of final control	exam, test	test	exam

6. Sections (topics) of the discipline)

Topic No.	Topic name	Auditory lessons			Independent work	Total hours for the course
		Theoretical training	Laboratory and practical exercises	Combined
4th semester
	Introduction to the discipline
	Arithmetic basics of computers
	Presentation of information in a computer
	Logical foundations of computers, elements and components.
	Basics of computer construction

	Organization of computer memory
	Total for 4th semester
5th semester
	Interfaces
	Processor operating modes.
	Modern processors

	Organization of calculations in computer systems.
	Classification of computing systems.
	Total for 5th semester
	Total for the year

Topic 1. Introduction to the discipline

The role and place of knowledge in the discipline “Computer Architecture and Computing Systems” in the field of professional activity.Presentation of information in computing systems.

History of the development of computing tools. Classification of computers according to the physical representation of information processing, generations of computers, areas of application and methods of execution of computers.

Topic 2 Arithmetic foundations of computers.

Number systems. Types of addressing Non-positional and positional number systems. Number systems used in computers. Properties of positional number systems. Converting numbers from one number system to another.

Representation of numbers in a computer: natural and normal form. Number storage formatsCOMPUTER. Algebraic representation of binary numbers: direct, inverse and complements codes. Operations with numbers in straight binary, octal and hexadecimal codes. Using reverse and two's complement binary codes to implement all arithmetic operations using a summing device. Advantage additional code compared to the reverse code.

Topic 3 Presentation of information in a computer

Types of information and methods of its presentation in a computer. Classification of information units processed by computers. Data types, data structures, file formats. Numeric and non-numeric data types and their types. Data structures and their types.

Coding of symbolic information. Character codes: ASCII, UNICODE, etc.Architecture and principles of operation of the main logical blocks of computer systems.

Coding graphic information. Binary coding sound information. Information compression. Coding of video information. MPEG standard.Internal organization of the processor.

Topic 4 Logical foundations of computers, elements and components.

Basic logic operations and circuits. Truth tables. Circuit logic gates Computers: registers, gates, flip-flops, half-adders and adders. Truth tables of RS-, D- and T-flip-flop.Protected mode

Logical nodes of a computer and their classification. Adders, decoders, programmable logic matrices, their purpose and application.Organization and principle of memory.

Topic 5 Basics of computer construction.

The concept of computer architecture and structure. Principles (architecture) of von Neumann. Main components of a computer. Basic types of computer architectures.Memory management

Topic 6 Internal organization of the processor.

Processor registers. Basic commands processor, processor duty cycle, use of interrupts, debugger programs

Implementation of von Neumann's principles in a computer. Process structure. Control device: purpose and simplified functional diagram. Processor registers: essence, purpose, types. Registers general purpose, command register, command counter, flag register.

Processor instruction structure. Command execution cycle. The concept of work cycle, work stroke. Principles of parallelization of operations and construction of pipeline structures. Classification of commands.

Arithmetic logic unit (ALU): purpose and classification. Structure and functioning of ALU.

Interface part of the processor: purpose, composition, operation. Organization of work and functioning of the processor.

Topic 7 Organization of computer memory.

Cache memory. Physical, linear, page, segment and virtual memory

Hierarchical structure of memory. Main computer memory. Random access and permanent storage devices: purpose and main characteristics.

Organization of RAM. Addressable and associative RAM: operating principle and comparative characteristics. Types of addressing. Linear, page, segment memory.

Cache memory: purpose, structure, main characteristics. Cache organization: direct mapped, partially associative and fully associative cache.

Dynamic memory. Principle of operation. Generalized structural diagram of memory. Operating modes: recording, storage, reading, regeneration mode. Modifications of dynamic random access memory. Main memory modules. Increasing memory capacity.

Special memory devices: read-only memory (ROM), reprogrammable read-only memory (flash memory), video memory. Purpose, features, application. Basic system input/output (BIOS): purpose, functions, modifications.

Topic 8 Interfaces.

Interface concept. Classification of interfaces. Organization of interaction between a PC and peripheral devices. Chipset: purpose and functioning scheme.

General structure of a PC with connected peripheral devices. System bus and its parameters. Interface buses and communication with the system bus. Motherboard: architecture and main connectors.

Internal PC interfaces: ISA, EISA, VCF, VLB, PCI, AGP buses and their characteristics.

IDE and SCSI peripheral device interfaces. Modern modification and characteristics of IDE/ATA and SCSI interfaces.

External computer interfaces. Serial and parallel ports. Serial port RS-232 standard: purpose, data frame structure, connector structure. PC parallel port: purpose and structure of connectors.

Purpose, characteristics and features of external interfaces USB and IEEE 1394 (FireWire). Interface standard 802.11 (Wi-Fi).

Topic 9 Processor operating modes.

Tire structure and types of tires. Processor operating modes. Real mode characteristics of the 8086 processor. Real mode memory addressing.

Basic concepts of protected mode. Addressing in protected mode. Descriptors and tables. Privilege systems. Protection.

Switching tasks. Page memory management. Interrupt virtualization. Switch between real and protected modes.

Topic 10 Basics of processor programming.

Interaction with peripheral devices, organization and operating modes of the processor

Basics of processor programming. Selection and decoding of commands. Selecting data from general purpose registers and microprocessor memory. Data processing and recording. Generation of control signals.

Basic processor instructions: arithmetic and logical commands, movement, shift, comparison commands, conditional and unconditional jump commands, input-output commands. Subroutines. Types and handling of interruptions. Stages of compiling source code into machine codes and debugging methods. Use from ladchikov.

Topic 11 Modern processors.

Main characteristics of processors. Identification of processes. Processor compatibility. Socket types.Multitasking; processor architectures.

Review of modern processors from the world's leading manufacturers.

Processors of non-traditional architecture. Cellular and DNA processors. Neural processors.

Topic 12. Organization of calculations in computer systems.

Types of computing systems and their architectural features, parallelism and pipelining of calculations, classification of computing platforms, advantages and disadvantages of various types of computing systems.

Purpose and characteristics of the aircraft. Organization of calculations in computer systems. Parallel computers, concepts of command flow and data flow. Associative systems. Matrix systems. Pipelining of calculations. Command pipeline, data pipeline. Superscalarization.

Topic 13 Classification of computing systems.

Classification of aircraft depending on the number of command and data streams: OKOD (SISD). OKMD (SIMD), MKOD (MISD), MKMD (MIMD).

Classification of multiprocessor computers with different ways memory implementations sharing: UMA, NUMA, SOMA. Comparative characteristics, hardware and software features.

Classification of multi-machine aircraft: MPP, NDW and COW. Purpose, characteristics, features.

Examples of various types of aircraft. Advantages and disadvantages of various types of computing systems.

7. Educational and methodological support of the discipline

Main literature

[Electronic resource] Chekmarev Yu.V. Computing systems, networks and telecommunications: Textbook. – M.: DMK Press, 2009.
[Electronic resource] Dogadin N.B. Computer architecture: textbook. – M.: BINOM. Knowledge Laboratory, 2008.
[Electronic resource] Avdeev V.A. Peripheral devices: interfaces, circuit design, programming: Textbook. – M.: DMK Press, 2009.

additional literature

[Electronic resource] Yurov V.I. Assembler: Textbook for universities. – St. Petersburg: Peter, 2009.
[Electronic resource] Chekmarev Yu.V., Nechaev D.Yu., Kurushin V.D., Kireeva G.I., Mosyagin A.B. Fundamentals of information technology: textbook. – M.: DMK Press, 2009.
[Electronic resource] Chekmarev Yu.V. Local computer networks: Textbook. – M.: DMK Press, 2009.
[Electronic resource] Prokdi R.G., Dmitriev P.A., Finkova M.A. BIOS. Settings. – St. Petersburg: NiT, 2009.

8. Material and technical support of discipline

The implementation of the academic discipline requires the presence of a classroom for conducting theoretical classes and a computer classroom for conducting practical work.

Classroom equipment:

tables and chairs for students;

marker board;

Computer classroom equipment:

personal computers for students;
Multimedia projector;
Screen;
Marker board;
teacher's workplace (PC, printer, table, chair);

Training software:

Operating system GNU/Linux;
Python interpreter;
Web Browser;
DBMS MySQL 5.1;
gcc compiler set;
Text editor;
Development environment QtCreator;
Qt4 library;

9. Forms of control, list of questions to be tested

Current control.The main form of ongoing monitoring of the level of theoretical knowledge is oral surveys during seminar classes; the form of ongoing monitoring of the level of practical knowledge and skills is tests and independent work on individual topics, including tasks and exercises intended for independent extracurricular implementation.

Questions for testing

Single-digit half-adder.
Multi-bit adder.
Trigger.
Stack. Flat and multi-segment memory model.
Static memory. Application and operating principle. Key Features. Types of static memory.
Command systems and processor classes: CISC, RISC, MISC, VLIM.

Questions for the exam

The principle of operation of Flash memory.
ACPI and OnNow technology.
Serial ATA interface.

3. Educational and methodological materials for students

The work program of the discipline “Computer Architecture and computer networks» classroom training is provided in the form of classroom trainingin the amount of 84 hours, as well as independent work of students in the amount of 24 hours.

Work in theoretical classes.In theoretical classes, students receive the most necessary data, which largely complements the textbook. The ability to listen to lectures with concentration, to actively and creatively perceive the information presented is an indispensable condition for their deep, lasting assimilation, as well as the development of mental abilities.

Attentive listening and taking notes of the material requires intense mental activity of the student. While listening to lectures, you need to distract yourself from extraneous thoughts and think only about what the teacher is presenting. Brief notes from lectures and taking notes help you learn the material.

A person's attention is unstable. It takes willpower to keep it focused. A summary is useful when the most essential and basic things are written down. This must be done by the student himself. There is no need to try to write down the entire lecture verbatim. This kind of “note-taking” does more harm than good. Some students sometimes ask the lecturer to “read more slowly.” But a lecture cannot turn into a dictation lecture. This is a very harmful tendency, because in this case the student mechanically writes down a large number of information heard without thinking about it.

It is recommended to record lectures using your own wording whenever possible. It is advisable to write on one page and leave the next one for elaboration. educational material on your own at home. It is better to divide the outline into points, paragraphs, observing the red line. Important passages, definitions, formulas should be accompanied by remarks: “important”, “especially important”, “Remember well”, etc. It is advisable to develop your own “markography” (icons, symbols), abbreviations of words. It would also be a good idea to learn the basics of shorthand. When working on lecture notes, you should always use not only the main literature, but also the literature that was additionally recommended by the lecturer. It is this kind of serious, painstaking work with lecture material that will allow you to deeply master knowledge.

Laboratory and practical classes.Laboratory and practical exercises involve solving practical problems, preparing a message on a given topic and participating in the condemnation of the problem affected by the message. The message should take no more than 3 – 5 minutes. The main type of work at the seminar is solving computational and graphic problems.

Preparation for a practical (laboratory) lesson begins with a thorough familiarization with the conditions of the upcoming work, i.e. from reference to seminar lesson plans. Having decided on the problem that attracts the most attention, you should turn to the recommended literature. It should be borne in mind that the whole group participates in the seminar, and then the task for the practical lesson should be distributed to the whole team. The task must be covered in full and the recommended literature must be mastered by the group in full.

To fully prepare for a practical lesson, reading a textbook is not enough - textbooks outline only the fundamental principles, while monographs and articles on a particular topic examine the issue raised from different angles or from one angle, but in any case in sufficient detail and depth. However, in order to properly understand the essence of the assignment, you should first familiarize yourself with the relevant text of the textbook - regardless of whether the lectures are provided in addition to this seminar or not. Having assessed the task, chosen a particular subject, and selected the appropriate literature, you can begin to actually prepare for the seminar.

Thorough preparation for laboratory and practical classes, as with lectures, is of decisive importance: the seminar will be held as the audience prepared for it. Independent work is the pillar on which all preparation for the course being studied rests. When preparing for practical classes, you should actively use reference literature: encyclopedias, dictionaries, albums of diagrams, etc. Mastery of the conceptual apparatus of the course being studied is a necessity.

Rules of conduct during laboratory and practical classes:

It is advisable to come to classes with a stock of formulated ideas and knowledge of methods for computational and analytical analysis.
if you decide to say something at the seminar, then let it be something worthwhile - you should not shake the air with empty phrases;
Speeches should be as compact as possible and at the same time intelligible; do not occupy the airwaves for a long time. Try not to interrupt the speaker, this is incorrect; comments, objections and additions usually follow at the end of the current speech.

At the seminar, there is not a test of preparation for the lesson (preparation is a necessary condition), but the degree of penetration into the essence of the material, the problem being discussed, or the methodology for solving the problem. Therefore, the conversation should not be based on the content of the works read; the teacher will put problematic issues, not all of which may directly relate to the processed literature.

Independent work.During the learning process, a student must not only master the curriculum, but also acquire independent work skills. Independent work of students plays an important role in cultivating a conscious attitude of students themselves towards mastering theoretical and practical knowledge, instilling in them the habit of directed intellectual work. It is very important that students not only acquire knowledge, but also master the methods of obtaining it.

Independent work is carried out with the aim of deepening knowledge in the discipline and includes:

studying individual sections of discipline topics;
students reading recommended literature and mastering the theoretical material of the discipline;
preparation for practical classes;
work with Internet sources, databases;
preparation for various forms of control;
solution of calculation and graphic works;
writing an essay on a chosen topic.

The sequence of all control activities is set out in the calendar plan, which is brought to the attention of each student at the beginning of the semester.

It is best for students to plan the time for independent work necessary to study this discipline for the entire semester, while providing for regular repetition of the material covered. The material outlined in lectures must be regularly supplemented with information from literary sources presented in the work program.

To expand knowledge in the discipline, it is necessary to use Internet resources and specialized databases: search in various systems and use materials from sites recommended by the teacher during lecture classes.

Preparation for the session.Each academic semester ends with certification tests: a test and examination session

Preparing for the examination session and passing tests and exams is the most important period in a student’s work. Seriously preparing for the session and successfully passing all exams is the duty of every student. It is recommended to organize this way academic work so that before the first day of the session, all practical work provided for by the schedule of the educational process is submitted and defended.

The main thing to prepare for the session is to review all the material, course or subject in which you need to pass the test. Only those who have mastered the educational material well will succeed.

If a student worked poorly during the semester, missed lectures and seminars, listened to them inattentively, did not take notes, did not study the recommended literature, then in the process of preparing for the session he will have to not repeat what is already familiar, but again in short term study all the material. And this often turns out to be impossible to do due to lack of time. For such a student, preparing for exams will be difficult and sometimes overwhelming, and the end result will be expulsion from the educational institution.

When preparing for a session, the entire amount of work should be distributed evenly across the days allocated for preparation, and each day of work should be monitored. It's better if you can exceed the plan. Then there will always be a reserve of time.

The teaching of the academic discipline “Computer Architecture and Computer Networks” is carried out taking into account the knowledge students already have in philosophy and sociology. The practical orientation of the discipline is determined by familiarity with theoretical and practical methods for assessing the effectiveness of projects. The main forms of conducting classes for the purpose of understanding the discipline are classroom lessons. To organize an effective process for students to master the material, it is possible to use various forms: lectures, discussions, solving calculation tasks, game forms, modern multimedia technologies and etc.

Extracurricular activities are carried out by organizing and guiding students’ independent work.

For a more in-depth study of the subject, the teacher provides students with information about the possibility of using Internet resources in sections of the discipline.

If there are academic debts for practical classes associated with their absences, the teacher must issue an assignment to the student in the form test assignments on a missed lesson topic.

To control students' knowledge in this discipline, it is necessary to carry out current and intermediate control.

Current monitoring is carried out to determine the quality of assimilation of lecture material. The most effective way is to carry it out in writing– on control questions, tests, calculation tasks, etc. Control is carried out in the form of passing test assignments by all students without exception. The materials of students' written surveys also include topics suggested for their independent preparation. While working on mastering the discipline, students, guided by the calendar plan, perform test papers and practical tasks.

Performance assessment system

This system is based, firstly, on the right of the teacher to independently determine the content and methodology of his course and, secondly, on the right of the student to choose his own path to achieve the desired result.

It is implied that scientific work The student is an integral part of the educational process; the meaning becomes not so much his focus on mastering ready-made truths, but a joint search with the teacher and other students for solutions to real life problems. Which largely determines the content and methods of the learning process.

Initially, an entrance test control of students’ basic knowledge may be provided and this may also be the end of the course of study. Thus, the effectiveness of training is determined.

5. Materials establishing the content and procedure for ongoing monitoring and intermediate certifications.

Questions for testing

Computers with Von Neumann architecture.
The principle of organizing a computer with Von Neumann architecture.
Presentation of information in a computer. Types of information.
Presentation of information in a computer. Number systems.
Presentation of information in a computer. Representation of unsigned binary integers.
Presentation of information in a computer. Representation of signed binary integers.
Peculiarities of computer-based addition of signed and unsigned binary numbers.
Implementation of logical operations. Logical operation I.
Implementation of logical operations. Logical OR operation.
Implementation of logical operations. Logical operation NOT and gate circuits.
Single-digit half-adder.
One-bit full adder.
Multi-bit adder.
Trigger.
Random access memory (RAM) organization.
Addressable and associative RAM: operating principle and comparative characteristics.
Types of addressing. Linear, page, segment memory.
Stack. Flat and multi-segment memory model.
Cache memory: purpose, structure, main characteristics.
Static memory. Application and operating principle. Key Features. Types of static memory.
Basic structure of a computer.
Basic structure of a computer. CPU.
Arithmetic logic unit (ALU). Structure and functioning of ALU.
Control device: purpose and simplified functional diagram.
General purpose registers, command register, program counter, flag register.
Basic structure of a computer. Computer bus organization.
Processor instruction structure. Classification of commands. Examples.
A simplified cycle for executing commands by a processor in a computer.
The concept of work cycle, work cycle.
Principles of parallelization of operations and construction of pipeline structures.
Command systems and processor classes: CISC, RISC, MISC, VLIM.

Questions for the exam

History of the development of computers. Generations of computers. Overview of the device and basic principles of computer operation.
Processors. Main manufacturers. Cores and lines. Cases. Sockets and slots. Motherboard.
The concept of a system chipset. Main manufacturers and characteristics. Chipsets with local bus. Bridges. Hub architecture.
Device system memory. Types of memory and their principles of functioning.
The concept of a system bus. ISA, MCA, EISA, VLB, PCI, AGP, PCI-Express (EV6, HyperTransport.)
Architecture of IDE and SerialATA controllers. Main characteristics.
Hard drive device. Logical and physical addressing of data.
SMART technology. Promising technologies.
Optical discs. Promising technologies.
External storage media. Iomega, ZIP, JAZZ, LS-120, MO-Drive.
The principle of operation of Flash memory.
Approaches to Improve Performance disk subsystem. RAID levels.
Ports COM, IrDa, LPT. USB bus.
ACPI and OnNow technology.
Serial ATA interface.
Video cards. Evolution and architecture of video cards. RAMDAC. Main manufacturers.
3D accelerators. Performance characteristics. Z-buffer. Types of filtration.
Sound cards. Main characteristics. Sound synthesis methods and effects. Types of sound cards.
Spatial sound technologies (QSound, HRTS+CC).
Spatial audio technologies. Sensaura Solutions. Technologies MacroFX, ZoomFX, EnvironmentFX..
Spatial audio technologies. (EAX, A3D)
Monitors. Architecture of CRT monitors. Characteristics. Types of masks.
Monitors. TSO and NPRII security standards.
Architecture of LCD monitors. Passive and active matrix. TFT concept. Other types of monitors (PDP, FED, LEP).
Printers: chamomile, dot matrix, inkjet, laser, solid ink and heat-sublimation.
Network cards. Network standards (10baze2, 10baze5, 10bazet, FDDI). Modems. Communication protocols, compression, error correction. ADSL technology.
The concept of petaflop. Hypercomputer. Cluster.

Department of Education, Science and Youth Policy

OGOI SPO "Borisoglebsk Industrial College"

Architecture of computers and computing systems

Guidelines for part-time students

OGOI SPO Borisoglebsk Industrial College

by specialty 2204 “Maintenance of facilities

computing technology and computer networks"

Borisoglebsk

Guidelines are drawn up in accordance with the work program

in the discipline "Computer and Computer Systems Architecture"

in specialty 2204 “Maintenance of computer equipment and computer networks”

Compiled by: ___________

Approved by the cycle commission
information technologies

Chairman of the Central Committee

__________________

1. Introduction

The academic discipline is based on the knowledge acquired by students in computer science and information technology. In the teaching process, it is necessary to show the connection of the material being studied with professional activities in this specialty.

The main goal of the discipline:

Studying and assimilation by students of the device of a personal computer, the ability to analyze the operation of internal and external devices of a PC.

The teaching of the discipline has a practical orientation, and is carried out in close connection with general professional disciplines: “Operating systems and environments”, “Electronic engineering”, “Fundamentals of algorithmization and programming”, “Microcircuit engineering”.

When studying a discipline, it is necessary to constantly pay attention to compliance with safety regulations, the importance of scientific organization of work, and the connection of the material being studied with other subjects that students study.

To consolidate theoretical material and develop practical skills, this program provides practical and laboratory work.

Before laboratory work Safety training is mandatory.

The purpose of these guidelines is to assist part-time students in studying program material in the discipline “Computer Architecture and Computing Systems”.

The academic work of a part-time student when studying a course consists of the following stages: independent study of the course using recommended textbooks and teaching aids; attending orientation, consulting and review classes conducted by teachers during laboratory and examination sessions or during the intersession period; performing practical work; passing the test in the discipline.

The main form of education for a part-time student is systematic independent work on educational material.

In order to consolidate theoretical knowledge and develop practical skills, the program provides 10 laboratory classes.

A correspondence student, starting an independent study of the subject, must familiarize himself in detail with the contents of this manual and be guided by it in his work.

Name of sections and topics		Mandatory training sessions for distance learning
maximum	independent	compulsory for full-time study	Including
overview, orientation classes
laboratory busy.	pract. busy.

1. Basic blocks of computing systems. Their purpose and operating principle.
2. Presentation of numerical data. Codes.
3. Structure and operation of the processor
4. Microprocessor memory.
5. Arithmetic-logical unit
6. Memory in a computer. Types and types of memory. RAM. Cache memory.
7. Dynamic memory.
8. Static memory.
9. Organization of the input-output process.
10. Connecting basic input/output devices to the PC.
11. Controllers. Interrupts.
12. Debugger programs.
13. Advantages and disadvantages of various types of computing systems.
Total by discipline

Topic 1 Basic blocks of computing systems. Their purpose and operating principle.

The student must

know

Composition of central and peripheral VT devices

Purpose and structure of the processor

Concepts: memory, registers, buses

Guidelines. When studying this topic, the student should pay attention to the content of the concepts that define the main blocks of a computer. It is necessary to clearly know their purpose.

Questions for self-control

The essence of von Neumann's principles

Processor device

Understanding registers

Topic 2 Presentation of numerical data. Codes.

The student must

know

Presentation of numerical data;

Basic symbolic codes.

be able to

Work with numbers in different number systems

Encode data

Laboratory work No. 1.

Methodical instructions. It is necessary to pay attention to the types of encodings of numeric data.

Questions for self-control.

Types of data in a computer

The concept of number systems

Data encoding

Topic 3. Processor structure and operation

The student must

know

Definition of a processor, its structure

Processor Specifications

Processor classes

be able to

Characterize the principles of instruction execution in processors,

Questions for self-control.

The concept of processor clock speed

CPU duty cycle

Determining the main characteristics of the processor

Topic 4. Microprocessor memory.

The student must

know

Purpose and composition of memory;

Purpose of memory registers;

Be able to

Describe the operation of general purpose registers,

Questions for self-control.

PC memory concept

Types of PC memory

The concept of memory registers

Topic 5. Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)

The student must

know

Purpose and characteristics of ALU;

Composition of ALU;

Be able to

Perform arithmetic operations

Laboratory work No. 2.

Laboratory work No. 3.

Questions for self-control.

What is ALU

ALU structure

Performing arithmetic operations in an ALU

Topic 6. Memory in a computer. Types and types of memory. RAM. Cache memory.

The student must

know

Classification of memory devices in computers according to various criteria;

Basic memory characteristics;

Type and types of memory

The order of information exchange between individual types of memory.

Be able to

Determine the order of information exchange between individual types of memory.

Questions for self-control.

Determining PC virtual memory

Determining PC physical memory

Methods for increasing memory

Topic 7. Dynamic memory.

The student must

know

Types of dynamic memory

Features of dynamic memory;

Questions for self-control.

Definition of dynamic memory

Types of dynamic memory

Topic 8. Static memory.

The student must

know

Types of static memory

Features of static memory;

Laboratory work No. 4.

Questions for self-control.

Definition of static memory

Types of static memory

Topic 9. Organization of the input-output process.

The student must

know

Classification of PC buses;

PC bus characteristics;

Be able to

Define logical structure PC with one or more buses;

Interface, system bus. System bus characteristics: bit width, clock frequency, throughput. Expansion buses. Local buses. Peripheral buses.

Questions for self-control.

Concept of interface, system bus

System bus characteristics

Types of tires

Topic 10. Connecting basic I/O devices to a PC.

The student must

know

Methods for connecting PC peripheral input/output devices;

Be able to

Connect basic I/O devices to the PC.

Questions for self-control.

- Characteristics of PC input devices

Characteristics of PC output devices

Topic 11. Controllers. Interrupts.

The student must

know

Definition of controller, interrupts

Purpose and methods of connecting the controller.

Be able to

Define types of interruptions

Questions for self-control.

Definition of controller, interrupt

Types and handling of interruptions

Topic 12. Debugger programs.

The student must

know

Types of debugger programs

Debugging Methods

Be able to

Describe debugger programs;

Questions for self-control.

Characteristics of debugger programs

Subroutine Definition

Compiling source code into machine code

Topic 13. Advantages and disadvantages of various types of computing systems.

The student must

know

Types of computing systems

Features of various types of aircraft

Be able to

Identify the advantages and disadvantages of various aircraft

Laboratory work No. 5.

Questions for self-control.

Definition of a computing system

Advantages and disadvantages of various computing systems

3. List of laboratory classes

Topic No.	Lab no. busy.	Name of laboratory lesson	Number of hours

		“Performing an addition operation in an ALU”
		"Performing a subtraction operation in an ALU"
		“Introduction to the operating mode of static memory”
		"Computer Performance Testing"

Option 1.

1. The concept of code. Types of codes. Characteristics of codes.

2. Monitors. Operating principle, characteristics.

3. Translate the given numbers 123.45; 891; 587.45 to binary number system

Option 2.

1. Coding numbers in a computer. Number systems. Types of number systems.

2. Interfaces. Interface parameters. Backbone-modular method of constructing a computer.

3. Add binary numbers 1101 + 111111; + 1111101

Option 3.

1. Processor, its functions. Processor characteristics.

2. The concept of a controller. Direct memory access.

3. Multiply binary numbers 111*11; 101*111

Option 4.

1. Classification of processors by the number of large integrated circuits.

2. The concept of memory. Types of memory depending on the ability to write and rewrite data.

3. Convert this number 456.78 to the binary number system

5. Knowledge control.

The final control is given in the form of an exam (semester 7).

List of sample questions for the exam:

1. Theoretical basis building a computer. Turing machine and Neumann automaton.

2. Coding of symbolic information in a computer.

3. Binary, octal and hexadecimal representation of numbers

4. Arithmetic-logical device.

5. Performing addition operations in the ALU.

6. Perform subtraction operations in the ALU.

7. Performing multiplication operations in the ALU.

8. Performing division operations in the ALU.

9. Structure of a classical computer. Purpose of nodes.

10. FMD ROM drives. Flash drives.

11. Processor structure. Purpose of individual devices.

12. Classification of processors.

13. Virtual memory. Strategy for organizing virtual memory.

14. Processor command system. Processor classes.

15. Design and types of dynamic memory.

16. General purpose registers.

17. Control device.

18. DNA processors. Neural processors.

19. Design and types of static memory.

20. Cluster architecture.

21. PC interfaces.

22. Organization of main memory. Memory with layering.

23. Communication of processors in a cluster system.

24. Cache memory.

25. Organization of the input/output system.

1. E. Tanenbaum Computer Architecture St. Petersburg, 2003

2. Maksimov EVM Moscow, Forum 2005

3. M. Guk Encyclopedia IBM PC Hardware, St. Petersburg, 2004

1. Introduction
2. Academic discipline program:
3. List of laboratory classes
4. Assignments for tests.
5. Knowledge control.

COMPUTER AND SYSTEMS ARCHITECTURE

lecture notes

Main characteristics of a computer. General principles construction of modern computers. General information and classification of memory devices. Architectural organization of a computer processor. Machine command structure. Addressing methods. Features of microprocessor architectures. Architecture of superscalar microprocessors. Principles of organizing a program interruption system. Classification of computing systems.

Source /file/14319/

Lecture 1. PRINCIPLES OF CONSTRUCTION AND COMPUTER ARCHITECTURE

1.1. Main characteristics of the computer

Electronic computer - a set of technical and software tools designed to automate the preparation and solution of user problems.

Structure - a set of elements and their connections. There are structures of technical, software and hardware-software tools.

Computer architecture - This is a multi-level hierarchy of hardware and software from which a computer is built. Each level allows for multiple construction and application. The specific implementation of the levels determines the features of the structural design of the computer.

One of the most important characteristics of a computer is its performance, which is characterized by the number of commands executed by a computer in one second. Since computer commands include operations that differ in execution duration and probability of their use, it makes sense to characterize it either by the average speed of the computer, or by the maximum speed (for the “shortest” operations of the “register-to-register” type). Modern computers have very high performance characteristics, measured in hundreds of millions of operations per second. For example, the latest Merced microprocessor, co-produced by Intel and Hewlett-Packard, has a peak performance of more than a billion operations per second.

Another the most important characteristic A computer is capacity of storage devices. This indicator allows you to determine what set of programs and data can be simultaneously placed in memory. Currently, personal computers can theoretically have a RAM capacity of 768 MB (chipset BX). This indicator is very important for determining which software packages and their applications can be simultaneously processed in the machine.

Reliability - this is the ability of a computer, under certain conditions, to perform the required functions within specified period time. For example, with modern HDDs the mean time between failures reaches 500 thousand hours. (about 60 years old).

Accuracy - the ability to distinguish between almost equal values. The accuracy of obtaining processing results is mainly determined by the bit capacity of the computer, as well as the structural units used to represent information (byte, word, double word). Using language programming tools high level this range can be increased several times, allowing very high accuracy to be achieved.

Credibility- the property of information to be correctly perceived. Reliability is characterized by the probability of obtaining error-free results. The specified level of reliability is ensured by the hardware and software control tools of the computer itself. Methods for monitoring reliability are possible by solving reference problems and repeating calculations. In especially critical cases, control decisions are carried out on other computers and the results are compared.

1.2. Classification of electronic devices

Traditionally, electronic computer technology (ECT) is divided into analog and digital. Rare samples of analogue computers are used mainly in design and research institutions as part of various stands for testing complex equipment. According to their purpose, they can be considered as specialized computers.

What 10-15 years ago was considered a modern mainframe computer. is currently an outdated technology with very modest capabilities. Under these conditions, any proposed classification of computers very quickly becomes outdated and needs to be adjusted. For example, in the classifications of ten years ago, the names mini-, midi- and microcomputers were widely used, which have almost disappeared from use.

Academician V.M. Glushkov pointed out that there are three global spheres of human activity that require the use of qualitatively different types of computers.

The first direction is traditional - the use of computers to automate calculations. A distinctive feature of this direction is the presence of good mathematical basis, laid down by the development of mathematical sciences and their applications. The first and then subsequent computers of the classical structure were primarily created to automate calculations.

The second area of application of computers is related to their use in control systems. It was born in the 60s, when computers began to be introduced into the control loops of automatic and automated systems. The mathematical basis of this area was created over the next 15-20 years. The new use of computers required modification of their structure. Computers used in management had to not only provide calculations, but also automate the collection of data and the distribution of processing results.

The third direction is related to the use of computers to solve problems of artificial intelligence. Recall that the tasks artificial intelligence do not imply obtaining an exact result, but most often an averaged one in a statistical, probabilistic sense. There are many examples of such problems: robotics problems, theorem proving, machine translation of texts from one language to another, planning taking into account incomplete information, making forecasts, modeling complex processes and phenomena, etc. This direction is increasingly gaining strength. In many areas of science and technology, databases, knowledge bases, and expert systems are being created and improved. In order to provide technical support for this direction, we need qualitatively new computer structures with a large number of computers (computers or processor elements) that provide parallelism in calculations. Essentially, computers are giving way to highly complex computing systems.

Another class of the most popular means of computer technology is embedded microprocessors. Advances in microelectronics make it possible to create miniature computing devices, up to single-chip computers. These devices, universal in nature of application, can be built into individual machines, objects, and systems. They are increasingly used in household appliances(telephones, televisions, electronic watches, microwave ovens etc.), in urban services (energy, heat, water supply, traffic control, etc.), in production (robotics, management technological processes). Gradually they enter our lives, increasingly changing the human environment.

Thus, we can propose the following classification of computer technology, which is based on their division by speed,

Supercomputer for solving large-scale computing problems. for servicing the largest information data banks.

Large computers for staffing departmental, territorial and regional computing centers.

Medium-sized computers for general purposes for managing complex technological and logical production processes. Computers of this type can also be used to control distributed information processing as network servers.

Personal and professional computers , allowing you to meet the individual needs of users. On the basis of this class of computers, automated workstations (AWS) are built for specialists at various levels.

Embedded microprocessors that automate the control of individual devices and mechanisms.

1.3. General principles for constructing modern computers

The basic principle of building all modern computers is program control. It is based on the representation of an algorithm for solving any problem in the form of a calculation program. The standard for the construction of almost all computers became the method described by J. von Neumann in 1945 when building the first computer samples. Its essence is as follows.

All calculations prescribed by the algorithm for solving the problem must be presented in the form of a program consisting of a sequence of control words-commands. Each command contains instructions for a specific operation to be performed, the location of the operands (operand addresses) and a number of service characteristics. Operands - variables whose values are involved in data transformation operations. A list (array) of all variables (input data, intermediate values and calculation results) is another integral element of any program.

To access programs, commands and operands, their addresses are used. The addresses are the numbers of computer memory cells intended for storing objects. Different types of objects located in computer memory are identified by context.

A sequence of bits in a format that has a specific meaning is called field. For example, in each program command there is a field of operation code and a field of operand addresses. In relation to numerical information, sign digits, a field of significant digits of numbers, high and low digits are distinguished.

A sequence consisting of a certain number of bytes accepted for a given computer is called in a word.

Rice. 1.1. Structural scheme Computers of the first and second generations

Any computer has information input devices (IIDs), with the help of which users enter programs for the tasks being solved and data for them into the computer. The entered information, in whole or in part, is first stored in random access memory (RAM), and then transferred to an external storage device (ESD), designed for long-term storage of information, where it is converted into a file. When a file is used in a computing process, its contents are transferred to RAM. Then the program information is read command by command into the control device (CU).

The control device is designed to automatically execute programs through forced coordination of all other computer devices. The control signal circuits are shown in Fig. 1.1 with dashed lines. Commands called from RAM are decrypted by the control device: the code of the operation that needs to be performed next and the addresses of the operands taking part in this operation are determined.

Depending on the number of operands used in the command, one-, two-, three-, four-address and addressless commands are distinguished. Unicast commands indicate where one of the two operands being processed is located. The second operand must be placed in advance in the arithmetic unit.

Two-address instructions contain instructions about two operands located in memory (or in registers and memory). After the command is executed, the result is sent to one of these addresses, and the operand located there is lost.

In three-address instructions, typically two addresses indicate where the source operands are, and a third where the result should be placed.

In addressless commands, one operand is usually processed, which before and after the operation is located in one of the registers of the arithmetic-logical unit (ALU). In addition, addressless commands are used to perform service operations (disable interruption, exit a subroutine, etc.).

All program commands are executed sequentially, command by command, in the order in which they are written in the computer memory (natural order of commands) or if the command is four-address (typical of the first computers), the address of the next command is in the fourth operand field . This order is typical for linear programs, i.e. programs that do not contain branches. To organize branches, commands are used that violate the natural order of commands. Individual characteristics of the results r (r= 0, r < 0, r > 0, etc.) the control device is used to change the order of execution of program commands.

The ALU performs arithmetic and logical operations on data. The main part of the ALU is an operating machine, which includes adders, counters, registers, logical converters, etc. It is reconfigured each time to perform the next operation. The results of individual operations are saved for subsequent use in one of the ALU registers or written to memory. The results obtained after executing the entire calculation program are transferred to information output devices (OUV). A display screen, printer, plotter, etc. can be used as a visual display.

Modern computers have fairly developed systems of machine operations. For example, computers like the IBM PC have about 200 different operations (170 - 300 depending on the type of microprocessor). Any operation in a computer is performed according to a specific microprogram, implemented in ALU circuits with a corresponding sequence of control signals (microcommands). Each individual microinstruction is the simplest elementary transformation data such as algebraic addition, shift, rewriting information, etc.

Already in the first computers, combining operations was widely used to increase their productivity. In this case, the successive phases of the execution of individual program commands (formation of operand addresses, selection of operands, execution of an operation, sending of the result) were performed separately functional blocks. In their work, they formed a conveyor, and their parallel operation made it possible to process various phases of a whole block of commands. This principle was further developed in computers of subsequent generations. But still, the first computers had very strong centralization of control, uniform standards for command and data formats, and a “rigid” construction of cycles for performing individual operations, which is largely explained disabilities the element base used in them. The central control unit served not only computational operations, but also input-output operations, data transfers between storage units, etc. All this made it possible to simplify the computer hardware to some extent, but greatly hampered the growth of their productivity.

In third-generation computers, the structure became more complex due to the separation of information input-output processes and its processing (Fig. 1.2).

Tightly coupled ALU and control devices are called CPU, g.e. a device designed to process data. In the computer circuit there also appeared additional devices, which had the names: input-output processors, information exchange control devices, input-output channels (IOC). The last name has become most widespread in relation to large computers. There is a trend towards decentralization of control and parallel operation of individual devices. which made it possible to dramatically increase the speed of the computer as a whole.

Rice. 1.2. Block diagram of a third generation computer

Among the input-output channels there were multiplex channels, capable of servicing a large number of slowly operating input-output devices (I/O). and selector channels serving high-speed external storage devices (ESD) in multi-channel modes.

In personal computers related to computers fourth generation, a further change in the structure occurred (Fig. 1.3). They inherited it from the minicomputer.

Rice. 1.3. Block diagram of a PC

The connection of all devices into a single machine is ensured using a common bus, which consists of lines for transmitting data, addresses, control and power signals. A unified system of hardware connections significantly simplified the structure, making it even more decentralized. All data transfers via the bus are carried out under the control of service programs.

The PC core is formed by a processor and main memory (RAM), consisting of RAM and read-only memory (ROM). ROM is intended for permanent storage of PC initial testing (POST) programs and OS loading. Connection of all external devices (VnU), display, keyboard, external memory and others is provided through appropriate adapters - speed matchers of mating devices or controllers - special devices for controlling peripheral equipment. Controllers in PCs play the role of input-output channels. As special devices, we should highlight a timer - a time measurement device and a direct memory access controller (DMA) - a device that provides access to the RAM, bypassing the processor.

Decentralization of construction and management brought to life such elements that are the general standard for the structures of modern computers:

modularity of construction, trunking, management hierarchy.

Modularity of construction involves the allocation in the computer structure of sufficiently autonomous, functionally and structurally complete devices (processor, memory module, hard drive or floppy disk drive).

The modular design of the computer makes it an open system, capable of adaptation and improvement. Additional devices can be connected to the computer, improving its technical and economic performance. It becomes possible to increase computing power, improve the structure by replacing individual devices with more advanced ones, changing and managing the system configuration, adapting it to specific application conditions in accordance with user requirements.

In modern computers, the principle of decentralization and parallel operation is extended to both peripheral devices and the computers themselves (processors). Computing systems have appeared that contain several you-numerators(computers or processors) working in concert and in parallel. Within the computer itself, there was an even sharper division of functions between processing tools. Separate specialized processors have appeared, for example, coprocessors that process floating-point numbers, matrix processors, etc.

All existing types of computers are produced families, in which older and younger models are distinguished. There is always the possibility of replacing a weaker model with a more powerful one. This is ensured by information, hardware and software compatibility. Software compatibility in families is established on a bottom-up basis, i.e. programs developed for early and junior models can be processed on older ones, but not necessarily vice versa.

The modularity of the computer structure requires standardization and unification of equipment, a range of hardware and software, interface means, design solutions, unification of standard replacement elements, element base and regulatory and technical documentation. All this helps to improve the technical and operational characteristics of computers and increase the manufacturability of their production.

Decentralization of management involves hierarchical organization of the computer structure. Centralized control is carried out by the control device of the main, or central, processor. Modules connected to the central processor (controllers and KVV) can, in turn, use special tires or highways for the exchange of control signals, addresses and data. Initialization of the modules is ensured by commands from the central devices, after which they continue to work according to own programs management. The results of performing the required operations are presented by them “up the hierarchy” for the correct coordination of all work.

The computer memory system is built according to a hierarchical principle. So, from the user’s point of view, it is desirable to have in the computer RAM large information capacity and high speed. However, a single-level memory structure does not allow simultaneously satisfying these two contradictory requirements. Therefore, the memory of modern computers is built on a multi-level, pyramidal principle.

The processors may include a small-capacity ultra-random storage device formed by several dozen registers with fast time access (ns units). Data directly used in processing is usually stored here.

The next level forms the cache memory. It is a buffer storage device designed to store active pages with a volume of tens and hundreds of kilobytes. The data access time is 2-10 ns, and associative data sampling can be used. Cache memory, as a faster memory, is intended to speed up the retrieval of program commands and processed data. The user programs themselves and the data for them are located in random access memory (capacity - millions of machine words, sampling time 10-70 ns).

Some of the machine programs that provide automatic control of calculations and are used most often can be located in read-only memory (ROM). At lower levels of the hierarchy there are external storage devices on magnetic media: hard and flexible magnetic disks, magnetic tapes, magneto-optical disks, etc. They are distinguished by lower speed and very large capacity.

Organization of advance exchange information flows between memory different levels with decentralized management of them, it allows us to consider the memory hierarchy as a single abstract virtual memory. Coordinated work of all levels is ensured under program control operating system. The user has the opportunity to work with memory much greater than the capacity of RAM.

Decentralization of computer management and structure made it possible to move to more complex multi-program (multi-program) modes. At the same time, several user programs can be processed in a computer at the same time.

In computers with one processor, multiprogram processing is apparent. It involves the parallel operation of individual devices involved in calculations for various user tasks. For example, a computer can print out any documents and receive messages arriving via communication channels. In this case, the processor can process data using a third program, and the user can enter data or a program for new task, listen to music, etc.

In computers or computing systems that have several processing processors, multiprogram work can be deeper. Automatic control of calculations involves increasing the complexity of the structure by including systems and blocks that separate various computing processes from each other, eliminating the possibility of mutual interference and errors (interrupt and priority systems, memory protection). They do not have independent significance in calculations, but are a necessary element of the structure to ensure these calculations.

As you can see, the half-century history of the development of computers has not given a very wide range of basic computer structures. All the given structures do not go beyond the classical von Neumann structure. They are united by the following traditional characteristics:

The computer core is formed by a processor - the only computer in the structure, supplemented by channels for exchanging information and memory -

Linear organization of cells of all types of memory of a fixed size;

Single-level addresses of 11 memory cells, erasing the differences between all types of information:

Interior machine language low level, in which the commands contain elementary operations of converting simple operands;

Sequential centralized management calculations;

Quite primitive capabilities of input/output devices.

Despite all the successes achieved, the classical structure of a computer does not provide the possibility of further increasing productivity. A crisis has emerged due to a number of significant shortcomings:

Poorly developed means of processing non-numeric data (structures, symbols, sentences, graphic images, sound, very large data sets, etc.);

Inconsistency of machine operations with high-level language operators;

Primitive organization of computer memory;

Low efficiency of computers when solving problems that allow parallel processing, etc.

All these shortcomings lead to excessive complexity of the software package used to prepare and solve user problems.

In computers of future generations, using “built-in artificial intelligence” in them, further complication of the structure is expected. First of all, this concerns improving the processes of communication between users and computers (the use of audio, video information, multimedia systems, etc.), providing access to databases and knowledge bases, organizing parallel computing. There is no doubt that this must correspond to new parallel structures with new principles for their construction. As an example, we point out that the fastest computer from IBM currently provides a speed of 600 MIPS (millions of instructions per second), while the largest hypercube system nCube provides a speed of 123.10 3 MIPS. Calculations show that the cost of one machine operation in a hypersystem is approximately a thousand times less. Probably, similar systems Large information warehouses will be serviced.