O.Yu. Zaslavskaya, O.Ya. Kravets, A.E. talkative architecture of computers and computing systems (lectures, laboratory work, tests). The architecture of computer systems as a set of hardware components. Approximate topics of coursework

Modern computer solutions can be classified based on their assignment to a particular architecture. But what could it be? What are the main approaches to understanding this term?

Architecture of computer systems as a set of hardware components

What is the essence of the concept of “computer system architecture”? The corresponding term can first of all be understood as a set of electronic components that make up a PC, interacting within a certain algorithm using various types interfaces.

Which are part of the computer system:

• input device;
• main computing chipset;
• data storage devices;
• components designed to display information.

In turn, each of the noted components may include a large number individual devices. For example, the main computing chipset may include a processor, a motherboard chipset, and a graphics processing unit. Moreover, the same processor may consist of other components: for example, a core, cache memory, registers.

Based, in fact, on the structure of specific PC hardware components, it is determined what kind of computer system architecture is built. Let's consider the main criteria according to which certain computing solutions can be classified.

Classification of computer systems

In accordance with the approach common among experts, computer systems in their architecture can include:

• to mainframe computers;
• to minicomputers;
• to personal computers.

It should be noted that this classification of computing solutions, according to which the architecture of a computer system can be determined, is considered obsolete by many experts. In particular, the same personal computers today can be divided into a large number of varieties, very different in purpose and characteristics.

Thus, as computer systems evolve, they can be classified using changing criteria. Nevertheless, the indicated scheme is considered traditional. It will be useful to consider it in more detail. In accordance with it, the first type of computer is those that belong to the architecture of large machines.

Mainframe computers

Large computers, or mainframes, are most often used in industry - as data processing centers for various production processes. They can be equipped with powerful, exceptionally high-performance chips.

The computer system architecture under consideration can perform up to several tens of billions of calculations per second. They're standing mainframe computers incomparably more expensive than other systems. As a rule, their maintenance requires the participation of a fairly large number of people with the necessary qualifications. In many cases, their work is carried out within departments organized as an enterprise computing center.

Minicomputer

Architecture computing systems and computer networks based on them can be represented by solutions classified as mini-computers. In general, their purpose may be similar to that of mainframes: the use of the corresponding type of computer in industry is very common. But, as a rule, their use is typical for relatively small enterprises, medium-sized businesses, and scientific organizations.

Modern minicomputers: capabilities

In many cases, these computers are used precisely for the purpose of effectively managing intracorporate networks. Thus, the solutions under consideration can be used, in particular, as high-performance servers. They are also very equipped powerful processors, such as, for example, Xeon Phi from Intel. This chip can operate at speeds of more than 1 teraflops. The corresponding processor is designed for production using a 22 nm process technology and has throughput memory at 240 GB/s5.

Personal computers

The next type of computer architecture is the PC. It is probably the most common. PCs are not as powerful and high-performance as mainframes and microcomputers, but in many cases they are capable of solving problems in both industry and science, not to mention typical user tasks such as running applications and games.

Another remarkable feature that characterizes personal computers is that their resources can be pooled. The computing power of a sufficiently large number of PCs can thus be comparable to the performance of higher-class computer architectures, but, of course, achieving their levels nominally using a PC is very problematic.

Nevertheless, the architecture of computer systems and networks based on personal computers is characterized by universality, from the point of view of implementation in various industries, accessibility and scalability.

Personal computers: classification

As we noted above, PCs can be classified into a large number of varieties. These include: desktops, laptops, tablets, PDAs, smartphones - combining PCs and phones.

As a rule, desktops have the most powerful and productive architectures; the least powerful are smartphones and tablets due to their small size and the need to significantly reduce the resources of hardware components. But many of the corresponding devices, especially top-end models, are, in principle, comparable in speed to leading laptop models and budget desktops.

The noted classification of PCs indicates their versatility: in one variety or another, they can solve typical user tasks, industrial, scientific, and laboratory. Software and the architecture of computer systems of the corresponding type are in many cases adapted for use by an ordinary citizen who does not have the special training that may be required for a person working with a mainframe or mini-computer.

How to assign a computing solution to a PC?

The main criterion for classifying a computing solution as a PC is the fact of its personal orientation. That is, the corresponding one is designed mainly for use by one user. However, many of the infrastructural resources he accesses are undeniably social in nature: this can be seen in the example of Internet use. Given that the computing solution is personal, the practical effectiveness of its use can only be recorded if a person gains access to data sources generated by other people.

Classification of software for computer architectures: mainframes and minicomputers

Along with the classification of computers discussed above, there are also criteria for assigning programs to certain categories that are installed on the corresponding types of computer equipment. As for mainframes and minicomputers similar in purpose, and in some cases in performance, they, as a rule, have the ability to use several operating systems adapted to solve specific production problems. In particular, OS data can be adapted to run various means automation, virtualization, implementation industry standards, integration with various types Application software.

Software classification: personal computers

Programs for ordinary PCs can be presented in varieties optimized to solve, in turn, user tasks, as well as those production ones that do not require the level of performance that characterizes mainframes and minicomputers. Thus, there are industrial, scientific, and laboratory programs for PCs. Software, the architecture of computer systems of the appropriate type depends on the specific industry in which they are used, on the expected level of qualifications of the user: it is obvious that professional solutions for industrial design may not be designed for a person who has only basic knowledge of the use of computer programs.

PC programs in one variety or another have, in many cases, intuitive clear interface, various reference documentation. In turn, the power of mainframes and minicomputers can be fully used provided that not only the instructions are followed, but also that the user regularly makes changes to the structure of the programs being launched: this may require additional knowledge, for example, related to the use of languages programming.

Levels of PC software architecture

The concept of “computer systems architecture” can be interpreted in different ways by a computer science textbook, depending on the views of its author. Another common interpretation of the term is that it refers to software layers. In this case, it does not matter in which specific computer system the corresponding software levels are implemented.

In accordance with this approach, computer architecture should be understood as a set of different types of data, operations, software characteristics used to maintain the functioning of the computer's hardware components, as well as creating conditions under which the user is able to use these resources in practice.

Software Layer Architectures

Experts identify the following main computer system architectures in the context of the approach under consideration to understanding the corresponding term:

• digital logical architecture computing solution - in fact, a PC in the form of various modules, cells, registers - for example, located in the processor structure;
• microarchitecture at the level of interpretation of various microprograms;
• broadcast architecture special teams— at the assembler level;
• architecture for interpreting the corresponding commands and their implementation into program code understandable to the operating system;
• compilation architecture that allows changes to be made to program codes certain types of software;
• architecture of high-level languages ​​that allow program codes to be adapted to solve specific user problems.

Meaning of Software Architecture Classification

Of course, this classification in the context of considering this term as corresponding to software levels can be very conditional. Computer architecture and the design of computer systems, depending on their manufacturability and purpose, may require different approaches from developers in classifying software levels, as well as, in fact, understanding the essence of the term in question.

Despite the fact that these ideas are theoretical, their adequate understanding has great importance, since it contributes to the development of more effective conceptual approaches to building certain types of computing infrastructure, allows developers to optimize their solutions to the needs of users solving specific problems.

Summary

So, we have defined the essence of the term “computer system architecture”, how it can be viewed depending on a particular context. In accordance with one of the traditional definitions, the corresponding architecture can be understood as the hardware structure of a PC, which predetermines the level of its performance, specialization, and requirements for user qualifications. This approach involves the classification of modern computer architectures into 3 main categories - mainframes, minicomputers, and PCs (which, in turn, can also be represented different varieties computing solutions).

As a rule, each type of these architectures is designed to solve specific problems. Mainframes and minicomputers are most often used in industry. Using a PC, you can also solve a wide range of production problems and carry out engineering developments - the corresponding architecture of computer systems is also adapted for this. Laboratory work and scientific experiments with such technology become clearer and more effective.

Another interpretation of the term in question involves its correlation with specific levels of software. In this sense, the architecture of computer systems is a working program that ensures the functioning of a PC, as well as creating conditions for using its computing power in practice in order to solve certain user problems.

Lecture: Architecture of computers and computer networks

Computer architecture

Computer architecture refers to all of its components, as well as the principles of their operation. If we connect several computers together, we can get a ready-made computer network.

There are two main components that are needed to create a computer network:

1. Special equipment for network formation;

2. Software that allows all computers to work together.

Computer network are called several computers connected to each other by special equipment, controlled special programs, thereby ensuring the exchange and common use information stored on a computer network.

Communication line- this is an environment that can connect computers together into a computer network; it is through communication lines that information is transferred.

If some information is transmitted directly between some subscribers. This happens via a communication channel. Integrated communication lines are channels. One communication line can belong to several communication channels.

Computer networks can be local (locally, at an enterprise), regional (belonging to a specific region), or global networks.

Types of computer network

Let's take a closer look at what a local, regional and global network is.

The local network is a network that connects those computers that are located on a short distance from each other, usually this happens on the territory of a building or even a floor.

The great advantage of this network is that all computers are located within a short distance, which increases the speed of information transfer and also expands the capabilities of such a network.

If a certain network connects users over long distances, then such a network is called global.

Such networks use a wide variety of communication lines, some of which were originally used for other purposes (for example, telephone or telegraph lines). However, thanks to the modern approach, almost all connecting lines have been replaced by radio lines or optical fiber.

If several local networks are combined into one network, then it is called regional.

These networks unite all local networks of a city, district or region.

There are also corporate networks– networks that connect computers of one organization or industry for the exchange of working information.

For such networks, computers do not necessarily have to be located in the same building.

Network architecture is a set of parameters, rules, protocols, algorithms, maps that allow you to study the network.

Protocol is a set of rules that imply designations of the types of data that can be transmitted over the network.

Network topology

Network topology is a plan that describes the connections between computers and their nodes.

There are several types of topologies, which are determined by the number of computers, the distance between computers, what parameters are used, and many other characteristics.

There are several main types of topologies: “Point”, “Bus”. "Ring", "Star".

"Dot"

The Tochka technology connects two computers in series with each other.

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND SCIENCE OF RUSSIA

Federal State Budgetary Educational Institution

higher professional education

"Tula State University»

Department of Robotics and Production Automation

Collection of guidelines for laboratory work

by discipline

Computers, systems and networks

Direction of preparation: 220400 “Mechatronics and robotics”

Speciality: 220402 “Robots and robotic systems”

Forms of training: full-time

Tula 2012

Guidelines for laboratory work have been compiled Associate Professor, Ph.D. Shmelev V.V. and discussed at the department meeting faculty cybernetics ,

protocol No.___ from "___"____________ 20 1 G.

Methodological instructions for laboratory work were revised and approved at a department meeting robotics and production automation faculty cybernetics ,

Protocol No.___ dated "___"____________ 20___

Head Department________________E.V. Larkin

Laboratory work No. 1. Classification of computers and architecture of computer systems 4

2.1 Computer classification 4

Laboratory work No. 2. Composition and structure of a personal computer 9

2.1 Structure of a personal computer 9

Basic devices PC 15

Laboratory work No. 3. Personal computer storage devices 29

2.1 Storage devices 29

Laboratory work No. 4. External devices PC 58

Laboratory work No. 5. Local computer networks 79

2.1 Local computer networks 79

Laboratory work No. 6. Software, information and technical support for networks 91

2.1.

Software and information support for networks 92

2.2 Basic principles of building computer networks 93

2.3.

Technical support for information and computer networks 104

The object of study is software, information and technical support for networks 122

2. Study software, information and technical support of networks 122

Laboratory work No. 7. Global information network Internet 123 2. Basic theory 123 2.1 Global

information network

Internet 123

Laboratory work No. 8. Communication system 133

1. Purpose and objectives of the work 133

2. Basic theory 133

2.1. TELECOMMUNICATIONS Systems 133

Systems for transmitting documented information 146

Laboratory work No. 1. Classification of computers and architecture of computing systems

1. Purpose and objectives of the work. As a result of completing this work, students should

know

classification of computers and architecture of computer systems

2.Basics of theory. 2.1 Classification of computers Computer is a set of technical means intended for

automatic processing

information in the process of solving various problems.

There are several criteria by which VMs can be divided. In particular:

according to the operating principle,

by element base and stages of creation,

as intended,

in size and computing power, by functionality,

According to the operating principle VM: analog, digital and hybrid. Analog or continuous VM, work with information presented in continuous (analogue) form, i.e. in the form of a continuous stream of values ​​of any

AVMs are simple and easy to use. The speed of solving problems is regulated by the operator and can be very high, but the accuracy of calculations is very low. Such machines effectively solve differential calculus problems that do not require complex logic.

Digital, or discrete-action VMs, work with information presented in discrete, or rather digital, form.

Hybrid or combined-action VMs combine the ability to work with both digital and analog information. Typically used in the automation of technical and process control tasks.

In economics and everyday activities, digital computers have become widespread, more often called simply computers or computers.

According to the element base and stages of creation, the following are distinguished:

1st generation, 50s of the twentieth century: computers based on electronic vacuum tubes.

2nd generation, 60s: Computers based on semiconductor devices (transistors).

3rd generation, 70s: computers based on semiconductor integrated circuits with a low and medium degree of integration (hundreds to thousands of transistors in one package, on a chip).

4th generation, 80-90s: computers on large and ultra-large ICs, the main one of which is a microprocessor (tens of thousands to millions of active elements on one chip).

If the electronic equipment of a 1st generation computer occupied a room with an area of ​​100-150 square meters. m, then VLSI 1-2 sq. cm and the distance between the elements on it is 0.11-0.15 microns (the thickness of a human hair is several tens of microns)

5th generation, present time: computing systems with several dozen parallel operating microprocessors.

6th and subsequent generations: computers with massive parallelism and optical-electronic base, which implement the principle of associative information processing;

so-called neural computers.

It is important to know:

Each subsequent generation exceeds system performance and storage capacity by more than an order of magnitude. By purpose

It is customary to distinguish between universal computers, problem-oriented and specialized ones. Universal

are designed to solve a wide range of engineering, technical, economic, mathematical and other problems, which are characterized by large volumes of data processing and complexity of algorithms. Problem-oriented are designed to solve a narrower range of problems related to the management of technological processes (objects), with registration, accumulation and processing of relatively data, performing calculations using relatively simple algorithms. They include limited hardware and software resources.

Specialized are designed to solve specific problems of controlling the operation of technical devices (units). These can be controllers - processors that control the operation of individual nodes of the computer system.

By size and computing power computers can be divided into extra-large (supercomputers, supercomputers), large, small and ultra-small (microcomputers, microcomputers).

Comparative characteristics of computer classes

By revising functionality computers are evaluated:

• processor speed,

  processor register width,

  forms of representing numbers,

  nomenclature, capacity and speed of storage devices,

  nomenclature and technical characteristics of external devices,

  ability to perform several programs simultaneously (multitasking),

  the range of operating systems used,

  software compatibility – the ability to run programs written for other types of computers,

  ability to work on a computer network

COURSE “COMPUTER INFORMATION TECHNOLOGIES”

TOPIC 5a

NETWORK INFORMATION TECHNOLOGIES

Concept of computer networks

A computer network (CN) is a collection of several computers or computing systems interconnected by means of telecommunications for the purpose of effective use computing and information resources when performing information and computing work.

Problems that are solved using personal computers operating in local network:

1. File separation. (allows many users to simultaneously work with the same file, which is stored on a central file server);

2. File transfer (allows you to quickly copy files of any size from one computer to another);

3. Access to information and files (allows you to run application programs from any workstation computer network);

4. Sharing of application programs (allows two users to use the same copy of the program);

5. Simultaneous data entry into application programs (networked application programs allow multiple users to simultaneously enter data necessary for the operation of these programs);

6. Separating printer, storage, etc.

On a global scale, computer networks can solve the following problems:

1. Providing information on all areas of human activity;

2. Electronic communications ( Email, teleconferences, etc.).

Currently, computer networks are divided by territorial location into:

1. Local computer networks, LAN networks (Local Area Network);

2. Regional computer networks, MAN networks (Metropolitan Area Network);

3. Global computer networks, WAN networks (Wide Area Network).

A corporate network is, as a rule, a closed computer network, which may include segments of LAN networks of small, medium and large branches of a corporation, integrated with the central office MAN and WAN computer networks using network technologies of global computer networks.

Computer networks are a complex complex that includes technical, software and information tools.

The technical means are:

1. Computers of various types (from super to low-power computers);

2. Transport (telecommunication) data transmission medium connecting computer centers or network servers and client machines;

3. Adapters (network card), switches, hubs, gateways, routers and more network hardware for connecting computers to the transport telecommunications environment and organizing the topology of a computer network.

The hub (HUB) is designed to recognize conflicts between network elements and eliminate them, as well as synchronize information flows within the network.

Switch – hardware, providing reception, control of receipt and routing of information packets.

The router is designed to organize interconnection between several local networks, combine them into higher-level networks, and distribute information flows between network segments.

Computer network software consists of three parts: general, special and system software.

General CS software includes:

1. Operating system (responsible for distributing task and data flows between servers and client computers of the network, managing the connection and disconnection of individual network servers, ensuring the dynamics of network coordination);

2. Programming system (includes tools for automating the creation of programs using client/server technology, their translation and debugging);

3. Maintenance system (is a set of programs for checking and preventing the operation of technical and software communications).

Computer network architecture

The architecture of computer networks can be viewed from two points of view:

1. From the point of view of the CS topology, i.e. how the network is organized at the physical level;

2. From the point of view of its logical organization, which includes such issues as organizing user access to CS information resources, their hierarchy, relationships between computers, CS segments, distribution of information resources over the network (servers, databases, etc.), network management as a whole, etc.

When building computer networks, it is important to choose physical organization connections between separate computers, i.e. network topology. Topology is a description of the physical connections on a LAN (or logical connections between nodes), indicating which pairs of nodes can communicate with each other.

The most common topologies are:

1. Bus - a cable that connects nodes into a network (computers are connected to one common cable (bus), through which information is exchanged between computers, advantages - low cost and ease of cabling in individual rooms, disadvantages - low reliability, since any defect a shared cable completely paralyzes the entire network, as well as low performance, since at any time only one computer can transmit data to the network);

2. Star - network nodes are connected to the center by spoke cables (provides for connecting each computer with a separate cable to a hub located in the center of the network, advantages - high reliability, disadvantages - high cost);

3. Ring - nodes are united in a closed curve network (data is transmitted along a ring from one computer to another, usually in one direction, if the computer recognizes the data as “its own”, then it accepts it; such networks are used if control of the transmitted data is required information, since the data, having made a full revolution, returns to the source computer);

4. Mixed topology – a combination of the topologies listed above.

Along with the topology of the computer network, which determines the construction of the CS at the physical level, the architecture of the computer network determines the structure of interaction between users, computers and CS resources at the logical level. It is at this level that the manager conceptually determines which users or groups of users have the right to access certain computer network resources (computers, network devices, files, etc.) and where these resources are located. The computer network administrator implements the selected policy using network administration tools.

At the logical level, local networks can be:

1. Peer-to-peer LAN is a network in which all computers have equal rights and can act as both users (clients) of resources and their providers (servers), giving other nodes the right to access all or some of the local resources at their disposal (files, printers, programs);

2. LAN with dedicated server. For effective administration of computer networks, networks with a special computer (dedicated server) are used.

There are many computer network servers, such as print server, database server, application server, file server, etc. Unlike those listed above, the computer network server manages the network and, in particular, contains databases containing accounts of network users that determine their access policy to CS resources.

In computer networks with a dedicated server, workstations are connected to dedicated servers, and the servers in turn are grouped into domains.

Domain – a group of computers and peripheral devices, with a general security system. In OSI (discussed below), the term "domain" is used to refer to the administrative division of complex distributed systems. On the Internet, part of the name hierarchy.

Domain networking allows you to:

1. Simplify centralized management network;

2. Facilitate the creation of networks by combining existing network fragments;

3. Provide users with one-time registration on the network to access all servers and resources information system regardless of the place of registration.

An important factor, which determines the architecture of a computer network is its scalability and, in particular, the domain architecture.

When combining domains, three main relationship models should be distinguished:

1. Master domain model (one of the domains is declared the main one, and it stores the records of all network users, the remaining domains are resource domains, all resource domains trust the main domain, which is the main master domain, this architecture does not scale well (the number of domains changes) );

2. Model with several master domains (several domains are declared main, and each of them stores accounts for a subset of network users, the remaining domains are secondary, this model scales well);

3. Complete model trust relationships(there is no main domain, and each of them can contain both accounts and resources, this model is well suited for creating as many large networks, however, it is extremely difficult to administer the network).

5.3. Internet\Intranet technologies

The Internet was initially built as a network that united a large number of existing local ones, and its predecessor, as already mentioned, was the ARPANET. The idea of ​​creating the Internet arose from the need to build a fault-tolerant network that could continue to operate even if most of it became inoperable. The solution was to create a network where information packets could be transmitted from one node to another without any central control. If the main part of the network is down, packets must move around the network on their own until they reach their destination. At the same time, the network must be sufficiently resistant to possible errors when transmitting packets, i.e. have a packet control mechanism and provide monitoring of information delivery.

The basis of the Internet is the TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) protocol stack. TCP ensures that on the sending computer, the sent message is broken down into pieces, so-called datagrams, the message is restored from incoming datagrams in the required order on the receiving computer, and undelivered or damaged datagrams are resent. IP performs the functions of routing and delivering individual datagrams to addresses. The TCP/IP stack was originally developed for the ARPANET and was considered an experimental protocol for a packet-switched network. The experiment gave a positive result and this protocol was adopted for industrial use, and was subsequently expanded and improved over several years. In 1983, the US Department of Defense announced the transition to Internet technology. This meant that with at this moment All computers connected to the WAN must use the TCP/IP stack.

There are many reasons why TCP/IP protocols were chosen to form the basis of the Internet. First of all, this is the ability to work with these protocols both locally and global networks. In addition, these protocols ensure the interaction of computers running different operating systems.

As mentioned above, the purpose of the IP protocol is to route message packets. Routing between local networks is carried out in accordance with IP addresses. The IP address is assigned by the network administrator during the configuration of computers and routers. An IP address consists of two parts: the local network number and the host number on it. A host is a network entity that can send and receive IP addresses, such as a computer or a router.

The local network number as an integral part of the Internet is assigned on the recommendation of a special unit Internet Network Information Center (InterNIC). Typically, address ranges from InterNIC are obtained by special organizations involved in the provision of Internet services - providers. The latter distribute IP addresses among their subscribers. The host number on the local network is assigned arbitrarily by the administrator. An IP address is 4 bytes long and is usually written as four numbers representing the value of each byte in decimal form, separated by periods (for example, 128.9.1.28). All IP addresses, and therefore networks connected to the Internet, are divided into four classes: class A, class B, class D and class E. Class A networks are intended mainly for use by large organizations, since the number of such networks is 126. But the number of hosts in them is 16,777,216. Class B has 65,536 networks and the same number of hosts. Class C defines 16,777,216 networks and only 256 computers on each network. Class D networks are a special class, i.e. such IP addresses are assigned to specific networks, and class E is reserved for future use.

Since it is extremely inconvenient to use digital network addressing when working on the Internet, symbolic names called domain names are used instead of numbers.

A domain is a group of computers united by one name. Symbolic names give the user the opportunity to better navigate the cyberspace of the Internet, since remembering a name is always easier than a digital address. To convert names into digital addresses, a special DNS system has been developed ( Domain Name System), for the implementation of which a special network protocol DNS. In addition, special information retrieval computer servers (DNS servers) have been created on the network. DNS servers provide a one-to-one correspondence between symbolic addresses and physical digital IP addresses transmitted over the Internet. Each domain must have its own DNS server. As a result, the Internet operates great amount DNS servers that store host names (subdomains) of their domain. Like a digital IP address, the server name is separated by dots to make it easier to build a hierarchy within a domain based on names. According to the rules for constructing a name, the hierarchy is set from right to left. For example, in the address www.microsoft.com the top-level domain is com. By name, you can get information about an organization's profile or location. Six domains top level defined as follows: gov - government organizations, mil - military organizations, edu - educational organizations, com - commercial organizations, org - public organizations, net - organizations providing network services, as a rule, regional network organizations.

In addition, all countries in the world have their own symbolic name indicating the top level domain of that country. For example, by-Belarus, de-Germany, us-USA, ru-Russia, etc.