A message on the topic of computer processor. How good are VIA C3 processors? What is a processor

Introduction.

CPU is the main “brain” node, whose task is to execute program code located in memory. Currently, the word “processor” means a microprocessor - a chip that, in addition to its own processor, may contain other nodes - for example, cache memory. The processor selects instructions from memory in a certain sequence and executes them. Processor instructions are designed to forward and analyze data located in memory spaces and input/output ports, as well as organize branches and transitions to computing processors. The computer must have a central processing unit (CPU - CentralProcessingUnit) that executes the main program. In a multiprocessor system, the functions of the central processing unit are distributed among several, usually identical, processors to improve overall performance systems, and one of them is designated as the main one. To help the central processing unit, people often enter into the computer coprocessors oriented towards effective execution of any specific functions. Widespread math coprocessors, which efficiently handle floating point numeric data ; graphics coprocessors, performing geometric constructions and processing graphic images: I/O coprocessors, which relieves the central processor from not complex, but numerous operations of interaction with peripheral devices. Other coprocessors are possible, but they are all dependent - the execution of the main computing processor is carried out central processor, which, in accordance with the program, issues “tasks” to coprocessors to execute their “parts”.

1. Processors. Purpose. Main characteristics.

CPU.

Central processing unit (CPU)– a functionally complete software-controlled information processing device, implemented on one or more VLSI. Modern personal computers from different companies use processors of two main architectures:

· Complete system variable length commands – ComplexInstructionSetComputer (CISC);

· Reduced set of fixed-length instructions - ReducedInstructionSetComputer (RISC).

The entire range of Intel processors installed in IBM personal computers have CISC architecture, and the Motorola processors used by Apple for their personal computers, have a RISC architecture. Both architectures have their advantages and disadvantages. So CISC processors have an extensive set of commands (up to 400), from which the programmer can choose the command that is most suitable for him in this case. The disadvantage of this architecture is that a large set of commands complicates the internal processor control device and increases the command execution time at the microprogram level. Commands have different lengths and execution times.

RISC architecture has limited set commands and each command is executed in one processor cycle. A small number of instructions simplifies the processor control device. The disadvantages of the RISC architecture include the fact that if the required command is not in the set, the programmer is forced to implement it using several commands from the existing set, increasing the size of the program code.

A simplified processor diagram reflecting the main features of the micro-level architecture is shown in Fig. 1. The most complex functional device of the processor is the command execution control device. It contains

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Control data addresses

· Command buffer, which stores one or more next program commands; is reading following commands from the storage device while the next command is being executed, reducing the time it takes to fetch it from memory;

· Command decoder deciphers the operation code of the next command and converts it into the address of the beginning of the microprogram, which implements the execution of the command;

· Controlling the selection of the next microinstruction is a small processor operating on the von Neumann principle, has its own microinstruction counter, which automatically selects the next microinstruction from the microinstruction ROM;

· Read Only Memory(ROM) microcommands are a storage device into which information is written once and then can only be read; distinctive feature ROM is that the information written into it is stored for as long as desired and does not require a constant supply voltage.

The address received from the command decoder is written to the microcommand counter of the sampling device, and the process of processing the sequence of microcommands begins. Each digit of a microcommand is associated with one control input of a functional device. For example, the control inputs of the storage register “Reset”, “Write”, “Read” are connected to the corresponding bits of the microcommand. The total number of microinstruction bits can range from several hundred to several thousand and is equal to the total number of control inputs of all functional devices of the processor. Part of the bits of the microinstruction is supplied to the device for controlling the selection of the next microinstruction and is used to organize conditional transitions and loops, since command processing algorithms can be quite complex.

The next microcommand is sampled after a certain time interval, which, in turn, depends on the execution time of the previous microcommand. The frequency with which microinstructions are sampled is called clock frequency processor. Clock frequency is important characteristic processor, since it determines the speed at which the processor executes commands, and, ultimately, the speed of the processor.

Arithmetic logic unit(ALU) is designed to perform arithmetic and logical operations for converting information. Functionally, the ALU consists of several special registers, a full-bit summary and local control circuits.

General purpose registers (GPR) are used to temporarily store operands executable command and calculation results, and also store addresses of memory cells or input/output ports for commands accessing memory and external devices. It should be noted that if the operands of a command are stored in RON, then the execution time of the command is significantly reduced. One of the reasons why programmers sometimes turn to machine instruction language programming is the fullest use of RON to obtain maximum performance when executing time-critical programs.

Let us briefly consider the characteristics of processors used in modern IBMPC-type PCs. Processors for these PCs are produced by many companies, but the trendsetter here is Intel. Its latest development is the IntelCore processor, which was launched in early 2006. The main features of the IntelCore architecture include the following:

Has a special internal cache of 2 MB in size;

Added arbitration bus, which reduces the load on the system bus;

The internal microarchitecture of the processor is based on two cores - parallel operating instruction pipelines (superscalar architecture), which execute several instructions at once in 12 different processing phases (reading, decryption, loading operands, execution, etc.). The pipelines end with two ALUs: an ALU operating at twice the processor frequency for short arithmetic and logic instructions, and an ALU for executing slow instructions;

Core power management has been introduced, which includes a temperature control unit capable of separately managing power for each core.

Company AMD ( Advanced Micro Devices ) produces processors compatible with the IntelPentium 4 instruction set - Athlon(K7). This processor is based on a superscalar architecture with three instruction pipelines operating in parallel and capable of processing up to nine instructions per processor cycle. Testing the K7 processor and comparing it with the Pentium4 shows that the K7 is not inferior to it and even surpasses it in some cases. The cost of the Athlon processor is 20 - 30% cheaper than the Intel processor. The K7 processor requires its own bus for its operation, which is incompatible with the bus of the Pentium4 processor. Therefore, replacing one type of processor with another requires replacing the motherboard, on which the chipset of the main functional devices of the PC is located.

2. Processor generation .

IBM-compatible PCs use processors (CPU - CentralProcessorUnit) compatible with the 80x86 family from Intel. The original IBMPC used the 8088 processor with 16-bit (386,486, Pentium, PentiumPro) and 64-bit MMX extensions, incorporating subsets of the instruction set and architecture of lower models, providing compatibility with previously written software. Despite the fact that since 1995 - 96 the Pentium has become the “ordinary” processor, acquiring all sorts of extensions, the 8088 processor deserves special attention for at least two reasons. Firstly, it was with him that the mass construction of PCs began, including in our country (although the worldwide “boom” occurred with 80286 processors). Secondly, from knowledge of its characteristic properties comes an understanding of a number of features of processors, including the fifth and sixth generations.

Processors from 8088 to Pentium, used in PCs, are single-chip microprocessors - the processor itself is located on one chip in one package (chip). The Pentium2 processor, strictly speaking, is not single-chip - here the processor chip and several secondary cache chips are assembled on a common cartridge, although for consumers this is not so significant - all functions are performed by one product. Depending on the complexity of the processor (number of pins), its power dissipation and purpose, Various types buildings:

DIP – DualInlinePackage, ceramic housing with double-row pinout arrangement;

PGA – PinGridArray, ceramic package with pin array;

PQFP – PlasticQuadFlatPack, plastic case with leads on the sides of the square;

SPGA – StaggeredPGA, package with staggered pinout;

SQFP – SmallQuadFlatPack, miniature package with pins on the sides of the square

PPGA – PlasticPinGridArray, heat-resistant plastic SPGA package;

TCP – TapeCarrierPackage, a miniature package with tape pins located around the perimeter;

S.E.C.C. – SingleEdgeConnectorCartridge, Pentium 2 processor cartridge – a printed circuit board with an edge connector on which the processor chips, cache memory, cooling radiator and fan are mounted.

Processors in DIP packages took up a lot of space, they were replaced by compact enclosures PGA, PPGA and SPGA, which are usually installed in a ZIFsocket (ZeroInsertionForce) - a block (socket) with zero insertion force. PQFP and SQFP packages are designed for installation in special blocks or soldering to the board. The most compact of multi-pin packages, TCP, are designed for soldering to the motherboard of portable systems.

3.Processor memory.

Processor memory is designed for short-term and long-term storage of information - command codes and data. Information in memory is stored in binary codes, each bit - an elementary cell - can take the value “0” or “1”. Each memory cell has its own address, which uniquely identifies it in specific system coordinates The minimum addressable unit of information storage in memory is usually a byte, usually consisting of 8 bits.

There are processors and computers with a processed word width that is not a multiple of 8 (for example, 5, 7, 9...), and their bytes are not eight-bit, but in the PC world a collision with them is unlikely. Also, in some systems (usually communications), a collection of eight adjacent data bits is called an octet. The name "octet" usually implies that these 8 bits have no explicit address, but are characterized only by their location in a long string of bits.

With the advent of large (in size) computers, a division of memory into internal and external memory developed. By internal we mean memory located inside the processor “cabinet” (or tightly adjacent to it). This included both electronic and magnetic memory (on magnetic cores). External memory provided individual devices with mobile media – storage devices magnetic disks(and first on the drums) and tape. Over time, all computer devices were able to be placed in one small case, and the previous classification of memory in relation to PCs can be reformulated as follows:

· Internal memory – electronic (semiconductor) memory installed on the system board or expansion cards;

External memory – memory implemented in the form of devices with different principles information storage and usually with mobile media. Currently, this includes magnetic (disk and tape) memory devices, optical and magneto-optical memory devices. External memory devices can be located either in system unit computer, and in separate cases, sometimes reaching the size of a small cabinet.

The internal memory is directly accessible to the processor and is accessed at the address specified by the program. Internal memory is characterized by a one-dimensional (linear) address, which represents one binary number certain bit depth. Internal memory is divided into operational memory, the information in which can be changed by the processor at any time, and permanent memory, the information of which the processor can only read. Access to RAM cells can occur in any order, both by reading and writing, and RAM is called random access memory - RandomAccessMemory (RAM) - in contrast to permanent memory (ReadOnlyMemory, ROM). External memory is addressed in a more complex way - each of its cells has its own address inside a certain block, which, in turn, has a multidimensional address. During physical data exchange operations, a block can only be read or written as a whole.

4. Labeling. Key designers and manufacturers.

Processors firms AMD, IBM, Cyrix And Texas Instruments.

AMD traditionally produces processors compatible with advanced models from Intel. These processors usually appear a little later, but incorporate the achievements implemented by Intel in later models. AMD's 486-class processors are compatible with Intel models. The most interesting are the EnhancedAm486® and Am5X86TM family of processors, which represent the pinnacle of achievements implemented within the 486 processor bus (PentiumOverDrive, of course, is somewhat superior to them, but its price is less attractive). Their difference is economical consumption - nutrition reduced voltage, the presence of developed SMM and consumption management tools, wider application of the primary cache write-back policy.

Processors use frequency multiplication by a factor of 2,3 or even 4, which can be reduced by grounding the CLKMUL pin.

Processors have the ability to reduce power consumption in idle mode (similar features appeared in Pentium processors starting only from the 2nd generation). Upon the STOPCLK# signal, the processor unloads write buffers and enters StopGrant mode, in which most processor nodes stop clocking, which causes a decrease in consumption. In this state, it stops executing instructions and does not service interrupts, but continues to monitor the data bus, tracking cache hits. The processor exits this state when the STOPCLK# signal is removed, together with the use of the SMM mode, and implements the advanced power management mechanism APM (Advanced Power Management).

The processor enters the AutoHALTPowerDowen low power state when executing the HALT instruction. In this state, the processor responds to all interrupts and also continues to monitor the bus.

From the StopGrant state, by stopping external synchronization, the processor can be switched to StopClok mode, in which it consumes minimal power. In this mode, it does not perform any functions, but when synchronization is resumed, it will return to the StopGrant state, from which you can exit in normal mode work.

Advanced SMM tools, implemented in the processor, support restarting I/O instructions and changing the SMRAM base address.

EnhancedAm486 processors have designations like

A80486 DX4 – 120 A names (from left to right) are deciphered as follows:

Housing type: A=PGA-186, S=SQFP-208.

Device type: 80486 Am486.

Version: DX4 = with frequency adjustment and FPU, DX2 = with frequency doubling and FPU.

Frequency (internal), MHz: 120, 100, 80, 75 or 66.

Family: S = ENHANCED (with extended capabilities).

Supply voltage: V = 3.3V supply, inputs accept 5V signal level.

Cache size: 8 = 8 KB.

Cache type: B = Write Back.

These processors can be installed in almost any motherboards with sockets 1, 2, or 3 having a processor voltage regulator that provides a nominal voltage of 3.3 V. Boards that do not support extended bus mode will use the processors in cache write-through mode only. More modern boards realize all the advantages of these processors.

Am5x86-P75 processors, also known as AMD-X5-133 - the highest-performance processors of the 486 class - have a different designation system. Here the inscription of the form AMD-X5 – 133 ADW is deciphered as follows:

AMD-X5 – designation of a processor with quadruple frequency.

Frequency (internal) - 133 MHz.

Housing type: A=PGA-168, S=SQFP-208.

Supply voltage: D = 3.45 V, F = 3.3 V.

Allowable case temperature: W=55 o C, Z=85 o C.

Although these processors are identical in interface to the EnhancedAm486 processors, they cannot be used on all system payments 486. Sometimes the reason lies in the BIOS version, replacing which leads to the desired result. Sometimes you have to reduce the multiplication factor (if the board has a jumper that allows you to apply a low level to the CLIKMUL pin). True, in this case the processor becomes an analogue of the DX-100 or DX4-120, depending on the selected input frequency.

In addition to Intel and AMD processors, there are products from other companies with the 486 processor bus. These include the following:

Company processors Cyrix :

The Cx486DX has a more efficient FPU compared to others. The Cx486DX2-66 and Cx486DX4-100 processors have a cache with writeback(WB), parameters are close to the corresponding AMD models.

CYRIX 5x86-100 and 5x86-120 interior architecture are approaching the fifth generation (they have, for example, dynamic branch prediction), but the external 486 processor bus has an extended mode (the cache works with write-back). Their performance is significantly higher than 486 Intel and AMD processors with the same clock speeds. Problems with installing this processor are usually associated with the lack of support for a specific BIOS version. In addition, some programs, in particular those written using the Clipper system, may freeze with this processor. Cyrix explains this phenomenon by the fact that the delays implemented on program cycles, in this processor will have significantly less value than in fourth-generation processors (the downside of branch predictions). To “treat” this “illness”, special slowdown programs are offered, apparently disabling architectural “excesses”, and, for example, for using the 3D-Studio package with these processors, Patch files (“patches”) are offered.

Company processors IBM .

486BL2, 486Bl3 (BlueLighting-lightning) – variant of 486SX with 2-3x frequency multiplication without BurstMode, 3.3 V power supply and reduced consumption. There are no serious advantages behind the sonorous name.

Despite the designation, the 486SLC and 486DLC processors are intended to replace the 386SX and 386DX, respectively - their case and interface have nothing to do with the standard 486 processor bus.

Company processors Texas Instruments .

TIDX2-80 and TIDX4-100 are close to similar AMD 486 processors.

CONCLUSION

Central processing unit (CPU)– a functionally complete software-controlled information processing device, implemented on one or more VLSI. . The processor selects instructions from memory in a certain sequence and executes them

In a multiprocessor system, the functions of the central processor are distributed among several, usually identical, processors to increase the overall performance of the system, and one of them is designated as the main one. Characteristics of processors used in modern IBMPC-type PCs; processors for these PCs are produced by many companies, but the trendsetter here is Intel . Its latest development is the IntelCore processor, which was launched in early 2006.

Intel supplies simplified options Pentium processors 4 called Celeron, which is half the price basic version processor. But it should be noted that latest models Celeron processors are in no way inferior to their “big brother” and even in some cases superior to it.

Processors have the ability to reduce power consumption in idle mode (similar features appeared in Pentium processors starting only from the 2nd generation).

List of used literature.

1. Voroisky F. S. Informatics. Encyclopedia dictionary reference book: an introduction to modern information and telecommunication technologies in terms and facts. – M.: FIZMATLIT, 2006. – 768 p.

2. Gridina E. A. Modern Russian language. Word formation: theory, analysis algorithms, training. Tutorial/ T. A. Gridina, N. I. Konovalova. – 2nd ed. – M.: Science: Flinta, 2008. – 160 p.

3. Magilev P.K. Workshop on computer science, Ed. 2nd,2005

4. McCormick D. Secrets of working in Windows, Word, WordExcel. Complete Guide for beginners: Per. from English I. Timonina. - Kharkiv: " Book club“ Club family sharing"", 2008 – 240 pp.: ill.

5. Makarova, Computer Science. Workshop on computer technology. - Edited by / Makarova, - Ed. 3rd, 2005.

6. Sobol B.V. Informatics: textbook / B.V. Sobol et al.-Ed. 3rd, additional and processed – Rostov n/d: Phoenix, 2007. – 446 p.

7. Etymological dictionary of the Russian language for schoolchildren and students. More than 1000 words / Comp. E. Gruben. – M.: LOKID – press, 2007. – 576 p.

8. Yagudin R. M. Russian language. Grammar. Spelling. Punctuation. : Ref. – 4th edition, erased. – Ufa: Bashkortostan, 2005. -280 p.

Abstract on computer science

"CPU"

I've done the work

Gulakov Philip

I checked the work

Kuyantseva L.M.

n. Friendship 2007

Contents___________ 1
Introduction ____________2
Processor __________3
Clock frequency, System bus, Multiplying factor _________4 - 5
Core type and production technology_________6
Differences between Pentium and Celeron, Athlon and Duron processors __________ 7
AMD processors and their disadvantages____________8

Introduction

In this essay I will talk about what a microprocessor is, the history of the creation of a microprocessor, why it is needed, and how the processor of one company differs from another.

CPU

Microprocessor is the central device (or complex of devices) of a computer (or computing system), which performs arithmetic and logical operations specified by the information conversion program, controls the computing process and coordinates the operation of system devices (storage, sorting, input-output, data preparation, etc.). The first Intel 4004 microprocessor was created in 1971 by a team led by the talented inventor, Dr. Ted Hopf. Today his name stands alongside the names of the greatest inventors of all time...Initially, the 4004 processor was intended for... microcalculators and was manufactured to order from a Japanese company. Fortunately, this company went bankrupt, and as a result, the development became the property of Intel. From this moment on, the era of personal computers began. Today's Intel processors are more than ten thousand times faster than their progenitor! And any home computer has power and “smartness” many times greater than the computer that controlled the flight of the Apollo spacecraft to the Moon. At first glance, the processor is simply a silicon crystal grown using a special technology (it’s not for nothing that it is also called “stone”). However, this pebble contains many individual elements - transistors, which together give the computer the ability to “think”. More precisely, to calculate, performing certain mathematical operations with numbers into which any information entering the computer is transformed. There are many millions of such transistors in any microprocessor. Today's processor is not just a collection of transistors, but a whole system of many important devices. On any processor chip there are:

Processor functions:

Data processing by given program by performing arithmetic and logical operations;

Software control of computer devices

Control device (CU). Coordinates the operation of all other devices, performs device management functions, and manages computer calculations.

Arithmetic logic unit (ALU). This is the name of the device for integer operations. Arithmetic operations, such as addition, multiplication and division, as well as logical operations (OR, AND, ASL, ROL, etc.) are processed using ALU. These operations make up the vast majority of code in most programs. All operations in the ALU are performed in registers - specially designated cells of the ALU. A processor can have multiple ALUs. Each is capable of performing arithmetic or logical operations independently of the others, allowing multiple operations to be performed simultaneously. An arithmetic logic unit performs arithmetic and logical operations. Logical operations are divided into two simple operations: "Yes" and "No" ("1" and "0"). Usually these two devices are distinguished purely conditionally; they are not structurally separated.

AGU (Address Generation Unit) - address generation device. This device is no less important than the ALU, because it is responsible for correct addressing when loading or saving data. Absolute addressing in programs is used only in rare exceptions. As soon as data arrays are taken, indirect addressing is used in the program code, causing the AGU to work.

Mathematical coprocessor (FPU). The processor may contain several mathematical coprocessors. Each of them is capable of performing at least one floating point operation regardless of what the other ALUs are doing. The pipelining method allows one math coprocessor to perform multiple operations simultaneously. The coprocessor supports high-precision calculations, both integer and floating point, and also contains a set of useful constants that speed up calculations. The coprocessor works in parallel with the central processor, thus providing high performance. The system executes coprocessor instructions in the order in which they appear in the thread. Math coprocessor personal computer The IBM PC allows him to perform high-speed arithmetic and logarithmic operations, as well as trigonometric functions with high accuracy.

Instruction (command) decoder. Parses instructions to extract operands and addresses where results are located. This is followed by a message to another independent device about what needs to be done to carry out the instruction. The decoder allows multiple instructions to be executed simultaneously to load all execution devices.

Cache memory. Special high-speed processor memory. The cache is used as a buffer to speed up data exchange between the processor and RAM, and also for storing copies of instructions and data that have recently been used by the processor. Values from the cache are retrieved directly, without accessing main memory. When studying the features of the programs, it was discovered that they access certain areas of memory with different frequencies, namely: memory cells that the program accessed recently are most likely to be used again. Let's assume that the microprocessor is capable of storing copies of these instructions in its local memory. In this case, the processor will be able to use a copy of these instructions each time throughout the cycle. You will need access to memory at the very beginning. To store these instructions you need absolutely small volume memory. If instructions arrive to the processor quickly enough, then the microprocessor will not waste time waiting. This saves time on following instructions. But for the fastest microprocessors this is not enough. The solution to this problem is to improve memory organization. The memory inside the microprocessor can operate at the speed of the processor itself

First level cache (L1 cache). Cache memory located inside the processor. It is faster than all other types of memory, but smaller in size. Stores most recently used information that can be used when executing short program cycles.

Second level cache (L2 cache). Also located inside the processor. The information stored in it is used less frequently than the information stored in the first level cache, but it has more memory capacity. Also, processors currently use a third-level cache.

Main memory. Much larger in size than cache memory, and much slower. Multi-level cache memory allows you to reduce the performance requirements of the most powerful microprocessors for the main dynamic memory. So, if you reduce main memory access time by 30%, then the performance of a well-designed cache memory will increase by only 10-15%. Cache memory, as is known, can have a significant impact on processor performance depending on the type of operations being performed, but increasing it will not necessarily increase the overall processor performance. It all depends on how optimized the application is for a given structure and uses the cache, and also on whether various program segments are cached entirely or in chunks.

Cache memory not only improves the performance of the microprocessor during memory read operations, but it can also store values written by the processor to main memory; These values can be written later, when the main memory is not occupied. This cache is called a write back cache. Its capabilities and principles of operation differ markedly from the characteristics of a write-through cache, which is involved only in read operations from memory.

A bus is a data transfer channel shared by different units of the system. The bus can be a set of conductive lines in a printed circuit board, wires soldered to the terminals of the connectors into which they are inserted printed circuit boards, or flat cable. Information is transmitted on the bus in the form of groups of bits. The bus may have a separate line for each bit of a word (parallel bus), or all bits of a word may use one line sequentially in time (serial bus). Many receiving devices - receivers - can be connected to the bus. Typically the data on the bus is destined for only one of them. The combination of control and address signals determines for whom exactly. The control logic drives special strobe signals to indicate to the receiver when it should receive data. Receivers and senders can be unidirectional (that is, they can only transmit or receive) or bidirectional (that is, they can do both). However, the fastest processor bus won't help much if the memory can't deliver data at the appropriate speed.

Tire types:

Data bus. Serves to transfer data between the processor and memory or the processor and I/O devices. This data can be both commands from the microprocessor and information that it sends to or receives from the I/O ports.
Address bus. Used by the CPU to select the desired memory location or I/O device by setting a specific address on the bus corresponding to one of the memory locations or one of the I/O elements included in the system.
Control bus. It transmits control signals intended for memory and input/output devices. These signals indicate the direction of data transfer (to or from the processor).

BTB (Branch Target Buffer) - branch target buffer. This table contains all the addresses to which a transition will or can be made. Athlon processors also use a branch history table (BHT - Branch History Table), which contains addresses at which branches have already been made.

Registers are the internal memory of the processor. They represent a number of specialized additional memory cells, as well as internal storage media of the microprocessor. A register is a temporary storage device for data, numbers or instructions and is used to facilitate arithmetic, logical and transfer operations. Special electronic circuits can perform some manipulations on the contents of some registers. For example, “cut” individual parts of a command for later use or perform certain arithmetic operations on numbers. The main element of the register is electronic circuit, called a flip-flop, which is capable of storing one binary digit (bit). A register is a collection of triggers connected to each other in a certain way general management system. There are several types of registers, differing in the type of operations performed.

Some important registers have their own names, for example:

1. adder - an ALU register involved in the execution of each operation.

2. program counter - register CU, the contents of which correspond to the address of the next executed command; serves for automatic selection of a program from successive memory cells.

3. command register - a control register for storing the command code for the period of time necessary for its execution. Some of its bits are used to store the operation code, the rest are used to store operand address codes.

Clock frequency.

Speed of work – of course, this is the indicator we pay attention to first! When we talk about processor speed, we mean its clock speed. This value, measured in megahertz (MHz), shows how many instructions the processor can execute within a second. The clock frequency is indicated by a number in the name of the processor (for example, Pentium 4-2400, that is, a Pentium 4 generation processor with a clock frequency of 2400 MHz or 2.4 GHz).

Clock speed is undoubtedly the most important indicator of processor speed. But far from the only one. How else can we explain the strange fact that Celeron, Athlon and Pentium 4 processors operate at the same frequency... with at different speeds?

This is where new factors come into play.

Processor size

Bit capacity is the maximum number of bits of information that can be processed and transmitted by the processor simultaneously.

Until recently, all processors were 32-bit (32-bit); this bit depth was reached 10 years ago. For a long time They couldn’t increase the bit depth because the programs were adapted for the old 32-bit platform. And since the buyer looks primarily at clock purity, manufacturers simply did not see the need for such a transition. AMD released the first 64-bit Athlon 64 processor in 2003.

Intel held out until the last until 2005. All Pentium 4 processors were still 32-bit. Only in the middle of the year, when new models of the Pentium 4 6xx series processor appeared on the market, the first ones had built-in support for 64-bit instructions.

Core type and production technology

The core is the processor chip itself, the part that is directly the “processor”. The crystal itself in modern models is small in size, and the dimensions of the finished processor increase very much due to its packaging and wiring. The processor crystal can be seen, for example, in Athlon processors; in them it is not closed. P4 has everything top part hidden under a heat dissipator (which also performs a protective function; the crystal itself is not that strong). Processors based on different cores, this can be said different processors, they may differ in cache memory size, bus frequency, manufacturing technology, etc. In most cases, the newer the kernel, the better processor. An example is P4, there are two cores - Willamette and Northwood. The first core was produced using 0.18µm technology and operated exclusively on a 400Mhz bus. The lowest models had a frequency of 1.3Ghz, the maximum frequencies for the core were slightly higher than 2.2Ghz. Northwood was later released. It was already made using 0.13 micron technology and supported a bus of 400 and 533 Mhz, and also had an increased cache memory capacity. The transition to a new kernel has significantly increased performance and maximum frequency work. Junior Northwood processors are overclocked well, but in fact the overclocking potential of these processors is based on a more “fine” technical process.

Differences between Pentium and Celeron, Athlon and Duron processors

The Celeron processor is a budget (stripped down) version of the corresponding (more productive, but also much more expensive) main-stream processor, based on the core of which it was created. Celeron processors have two to four times less L2 cache. They also have a lower system bus frequency compared to their corresponding “parents”. Duron processors, compared to Athlon, have 4 times less cache memory and a lower system bus of 200MHz (266MHz for Applebred), although there are also “full-fledged” Athlons with a 200MHz FSB. In the near future, Durons on the Morgan core will completely disappear from sale - their production has already been curtailed quite a long time ago. They should be replaced by Durons on the Applebred core, which are nothing more than AthlonXP Thoroughbreds cut down in cache. Bartons cut down in cache have also already appeared 's, the core of which is called Thorton. The main characteristics of the processors can be seen in the table at the end of the abstract. There are tasks in which there is almost no difference between regular and cut-down processors, and in some cases the lag is quite serious. On average, when compared with uncut-down ones. processor of the same frequency, the lag is 10-30%. But cut-down processors tend to overclock better due to the smaller amount of cache memory and are cheaper, in short, if the price difference between a normal and a cut-down processor is significant, then it’s worth taking. stripped down Although it should be noted here that Celeron processors perform very poorly compared to full-fledged P4s - the lag in some situations reaches 50%. This does not apply to processors Celeron D, in which the second level cache is 256 KB (128 KB in regular Celerons) and the lag is no longer so terrible.

AMD processors

Firstly, with AXP (and Athlon 64) a rating is written instead of frequency, i.e. for example, a 2000+ processor actually operates at a frequency of 1667Mhz, but in terms of operating efficiency it corresponds to Athlon (Thunderbird) 2000Mhz. Temperature has recently been considered the main drawback. But the latest models (on Thoroughbred, Barton, etc. cores) are comparable in heat dissipation to the Pentium 4, and the latest, at the time of writing, models from Intel (P4 Extreme Edition) sometimes get warmer and much more. In terms of reliability, processors are now also not much inferior to P4; although they cannot skip cycles (run “idle”) when overheated, they have acquired a built-in thermal sensor (although it appeared in the Palomino core, very few modern motherboards can take readings from this temperature sensor). It should be noted here that Athlon XP on the Barton core acquired similar function BusDisconnect - it “disconnects” the processor from the bus during idle cycles (idle), but it is virtually powerless when overheated due to increased load - here all “responsibility” is shifted to the thermal control of the motherboard. Although the “strength” of the crystal (maximum permissible pressure limits) has increased, due to the reduced core area it has actually remained the same. Therefore, the probability of burning/damaging the crystal, although it has become less, still exists. But the Athlon 64 finally had the processor chip hidden under a heat spreader, so it would be extremely difficult to damage it. All "glitches" attributed to AMD are often the result of uninstalled or incorrectly installed universal drivers for VIA chipsets (VIA 4 in 1 Service Pack) or chipset drivers from other manufacturers (AMD, SIS, ALi). Atholn XP and Pentium 4 processors work in different applications very differently. For example, in complex mathematical calculations(3D modeling, specialized mathematical packages), archiving, encoding in MPEG4, P4 often “beats” AXP. But there are a number of programs that work better with AXP. Basically these are games. For the average user (playing games), it is worth focusing on them, since recoding in any case takes a lot of time, and games, on the contrary, need to carry out all the calculations as quickly as possible. AXP Barton processors with a 400Mhz bus and fundamentally new hybrid processors (32 and 64) have already been released. bit processor"in one bottle") K8.

How good are VIA C3 processors?

Their only advantage is low heat generation. Their power dissipation is 5-20 Watts versus 40-60 (on average) for AXP and P4. C3 are compatible with the outdated (according to Intel) Socket 370, although not with all motherboards; for example, the new Nehemiah core requires support for Tualatin on the board. In terms of speed, they are very much inferior (up to 50%, sometimes even more) to those with similar frequencies Intel processors and AMD. Even some improvements like SSE support They weren't given anything special. There are almost no such processors on sale and I don’t regret it at all :). If you need a quiet machine (such a processor often only needs a heatsink), but speed is not important, then you can take it. Theoretically, they should overclock quite well (the manufacturing technology is quite advanced), but in practice this is not observed - this is due to the small “safety margin” and ineffective core design.

Hyper Threading.

This technology designed to increase processor efficiency. Intel estimates that most of the time, only 30% of all execution units in the processor are running. Therefore, the idea arose to somehow use the remaining 70% (as you already know, the Pentium 4, which uses this technology, does not at all suffer from excess performance per megahertz). The essence Hyper Threading is that during the execution of one "thread" of the program, idle actuators can move on to the execution of another “thread” of the program. That is, it turns out something like dividing one physical processor into two virtual ones. Situations are also possible when attempts to simultaneously execute several “threads” will lead to a noticeable drop in performance. For example, because the L2 cache size is quite small, active threads will try to load the cache. It is possible that the fight for the cache will lead to constant clearing and reloading of data in it (therefore, the speed will drop). To use this technology, just one processor with Hyper Threading support is not enough; you need support from the motherboard (chipset). It is very important to remember that there is currently a lack of normal support for this technology from operating systems and, most importantly, the need to recompile, and in some cases change the algorithm, applications so that they can fully take advantage of Hyper Threading. Tests prove this, often there is no increase in speed, sometimes there is even a slight drop in performance. Although there are already a number of applications in which, thanks to optimizations for HT, there is a strong increase in speed. Let's see what will happen next.

Recently new processors of the K8 family appeared and P4 came out “in response”

Extreme Edition (EE), what can we say about them?

P4 EE is essentially a server version of P4 (Xeon on the Gallatin core, “packed” in mPGA478), has all the advantages of regular P4 with 800Mhz FSB, plus 2Mb L3 cache. Athlon 64 supports 32/64-bit computing, has a 1Mb L2 cache, SSE2 support, a built-in controller for initially single-channel, later dual-channel DDR400 and a 200MHz real FSB frequency. Note that the FSB frequency in Athlon 64 systems has a purely formal meaning: in fact, it is simply the frequency of the signal relative to which the operating frequency of the CPU and other system components is calculated. The Athlon 64 FX is derived from the Operton server processor, and differs from the Athlon 64 in that it is equipped with a dual-channel buffered (registred) DDR400 controller. The general trend is this: the Athlon 64 3200+ loses to the P4 3200Mhz by about 5% in terms of performance on average, although it should be taken into account that the actual processor frequency is about 2Ghz, it turns out that a 2Ghz processor is more than a match for a 3.2Ghz processor! The current top processors P4 EE and Athlon 64 FX are on par if you average the test results. And if we compare the Athlon 64 3200+ with the regular Athlon 3200+, then the first one is almost always (with the exception of mp3 encoding :)) faster by 10-40%. And now a little about 64-bit. At the moment, the Athlon 64 has practically no use for its support, real applications There are almost none suitable for use by ordinary users. Microsoft is about to release a 64-bit OS suitable for ordinary users. The existing 64-bit Linux is not suitable in this case. The most unpleasant thing is that all applications will also require improvements to use all the “power” of the new processors.

Abstract on computer science

"CPU"

I've done the work

Gulakov Philip

I checked the work

Kuyantseva L.M.

n. Friendship 2007

Contents___________ 1
Introduction ____________2
Processor __________3
Clock frequency, System bus, Multiplying factor _________4 - 5
Core type and production technology_________6
Differences between Pentium and Celeron, Athlon and Duron processors __________ 7
AMD processors and their disadvantages____________8

Introduction

In this essay I will talk about what a microprocessor is, the history of the creation of a microprocessor, why it is needed, and how the processor of one company differs from another.

CPU

Microprocessor is a central device (or set of devices) of a computer (or computing system), which performs arithmetic and logical operations specified by an information conversion program, controls the computing process and coordinates the operation of system devices (storage, sorting, input-output, data preparation, etc. ). The first Intel 4004 microprocessor was created in 1971 by a team led by the talented inventor, Dr. Ted Hopf. Today his name stands alongside the names of the greatest inventors of all time...Initially, the 4004 processor was intended for... microcalculators and was manufactured to order from a Japanese company. Fortunately, this company went bankrupt, and as a result, the development became the property of Intel. From this moment on, the era of personal computers began. Today's Intel processors are more than ten thousand times faster than their progenitor! And any home computer has power and “smartness” many times greater than the computer that controlled the flight of the Apollo spacecraft to the Moon. At first glance, the processor is simply a silicon crystal grown using a special technology (it’s not for nothing that it is also called “stone”). However, this pebble contains many individual elements - transistors, which together give the computer the ability to “think”. More precisely, to calculate, performing certain mathematical operations with numbers into which any information entering the computer is transformed. There are many millions of such transistors in any microprocessor. Today's processor is not just a collection of transistors, but a whole system of many important devices. On any processor chip there are:

Processor functions:

Processing data according to a given program by performing arithmetic and logical operations;

Software control of computer devices

Control device (CU). Coordinates the operation of all other devices, performs device management functions, and manages computer calculations.

Arithmetic logic unit (ALU). This is the name of the device for integer operations. Arithmetic operations such as addition, multiplication and division, as well as logical operations (OR, AND, ASL, ROL, etc.) are processed using ALU. These operations make up the vast majority of code in most programs. All operations in the ALU are performed in registers - specially designated cells of the ALU. A processor can have multiple ALUs. Each is capable of performing arithmetic or logical operations independently of the others, allowing multiple operations to be performed simultaneously. An arithmetic logic unit performs arithmetic and logical operations. Logical operations are divided into two simple operations: "Yes" and "No" ("1" and "0"). Usually these two devices are distinguished purely conditionally; they are not structurally separated.

Mathematical coprocessor (FPU). The processor may contain several mathematical coprocessors. Each of them is capable of performing at least one floating point operation regardless of what the other ALUs are doing. The pipelining method allows one math coprocessor to perform multiple operations simultaneously. The coprocessor supports high-precision calculations, both integer and floating point, and also contains a set of useful constants that speed up calculations. The coprocessor works in parallel with the central processor, thus providing high performance. The system executes coprocessor instructions in the order in which they appear in the thread. The mathematical coprocessor of the IBM PC personal computer allows it to perform high-speed arithmetic and logarithmic operations, as well as trigonometric functions with high accuracy.

Cache memory. Special high-speed processor memory. The cache is used as a buffer to speed up communication between the processor and RAM, and to store copies of instructions and data that have recently been used by the processor. Values from the cache are retrieved directly, without accessing main memory. When studying the features of the programs, it was discovered that they access certain areas of memory with different frequencies, namely: memory cells that the program accessed recently are most likely to be used again. Let's assume that the microprocessor is capable of storing copies of these instructions in its local memory. In this case, the processor will be able to use a copy of these instructions each time throughout the cycle. You will need access to memory at the very beginning. A very small amount of memory is required to store these instructions. If instructions arrive to the processor quickly enough, then the microprocessor will not waste time waiting. This saves time on following instructions. But for the fastest microprocessors this is not enough. The solution to this problem is to improve memory organization. The memory inside the microprocessor can operate at the speed of the processor itself

A bus is a data transfer channel shared by different units of the system. The bus can be a set of conductive lines in a printed circuit board, wires soldered to the terminals of the connectors into which the printed circuit boards are inserted, or a flat cable. Information is transmitted on the bus in the form of groups of bits. The bus may have a separate line for each bit of a word (parallel bus), or all bits of a word may use one line sequentially in time (serial bus). Many receiving devices - receivers - can be connected to the bus. Typically the data on the bus is destined for only one of them. The combination of control and address signals determines for whom exactly. The control logic drives special strobe signals to indicate to the receiver when it should receive data. Receivers and senders can be unidirectional (that is, they can only transmit or receive) or bidirectional (that is, they can do both). However, the fastest processor bus won't help much if the memory can't deliver data at the appropriate speed.

Tire types:

Data bus. Serves to transfer data between the processor and memory or the processor and I/O devices. This data can be both commands from the microprocessor and information that it sends to or receives from the I/O ports.
Address bus. Used by the CPU to select the desired memory location or I/O device by setting a specific address on the bus corresponding to one of the memory locations or one of the I/O elements included in the system.
Control bus. It transmits control signals intended for memory and input/output devices. These signals indicate the direction of data transfer (to or from the processor).

What is a processor?

CPU(from - process) - a device or program whose purpose is to process (process) something (object, process).

The processor is the main chip of the computer, its “brain”. It allows the execution of program code located in memory and controls the operation of all computer devices. The faster the processor speed, the faster the computer will perform. The processor has special cells called registers. It is in the registers that the commands that are executed by the processor are placed, as well as the data that the commands operate on. The processor's job is to select from memory to a certain sequence commands and data and their execution. This is what program execution is based on.

What parameters distinguish one processor from another. This is primarily the clock frequency, bit depth, operating voltage, internal clock frequency multiplication factor and Download and read What is a processor?

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