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Base processor frequency and how it works. Processor frequency: clock, maximum

Statement:

The higher the processor clock speed, the higher its performance.


The speed of processors has always been compared based on their leading and most understandable characteristic - clock frequency. The fashion for this was introduced in 1984 by IBM PC marketers, who claimed that the Intel 8088 processor in their computer was almost five times faster than the MOS Technology 6502 in clock frequency
from the Apple II - which means it's almost five times faster. Intel and Microsoft followed the same logic in the 90s, claiming that the Pentium was more productive than the PowerPC from Apple computers only because it had a higher clock speed. After AMD joined the race in the late 90s, the company had to introduce special markings that compared their processors with Intel processors. Most consumers were confident that clock speed was the main characteristic, and Intel, which relied on its growth, only supported them in this belief.

JOHN SPOONER

journalist

“After the release of Pentium III processors operating at frequencies up to 667 MHz, AMD may lose its leadership. Submitted
Athlon processors are running this month
with a maximum frequency of 650 MHz. But Intel's leadership won't last long. According to AMD representatives, they will release a processor with a frequency of 700 MHz by the end of the year.”

Why this is not true:

The time it takes to complete operations is more important than the clock speed.


It is correct to compare the clock frequency only
processors of the same model series with the same architecture. Although the frequency of the Intel 8088 was almost five times higher than that of the MOS Technology 6502, in fact, the same operation could take more clock cycles from the Intel 8088, which is why the advantage in frequency was leveled out. So it was
in the future: first Apple, and then AMD tried to expose the “myth of megahertz.” In 2006, Intel finally joined them, reaching the clock speed limit on the architecture it was then using in desktop processors, and changing the paradigm.

Today the number of operations that the processor performs
in one clock cycle, clock speed has never been more important. Case
is that the higher the frequency, the higher the heat generation,
and therefore the creators of mobile processors focus
for optimization, not dry numbers. The myth, however, goes nowhere
did not disappear, and even evolved: for example, many began to believe that the speed of a processor is proportional to the number of cores in it. Yes, and if you name the average person two processors with different clock frequencies, then he will still
by inertia it will choose the one with more megahertz.

04. 07.2018

Blog of Dmitry Vassiyarov.

Are clock speed and performance the same thing?

Greetings to all readers, and I will be especially pleased to please you with my story on the topic of what is processor clock speed? Perhaps for some this topic will seem elementary and of little use, but I am sure that a few interesting facts and simple comparisons will allow you to take a fresh look at the operation of the CPU.

When choosing hardware for a computer or a new smartphone, the first thing we are interested in is how many cores the processor has and what is the frequency of their operation. The brand of the CPU itself in this case is a matter of taste (AMD or Intel, MTK or Snapdragon), but if of the presented models, one has a higher frequency in its characteristics, but the choice will certainly be made in its favor. Let's look at why this is so important.

"Impulsive behavior" of the processor

The processor is the heart of any computing machine, and this includes not only calculators and computers used in complex calculations, but also any device that works with digitized data. To convert them into music, video, image, or, even more so, to force the program to perform certain operations, the stream of “zeros” and “ones” written in must be passed through a block that performs logical operations. Such processing modules, created from many semiconductor microtransistors, form the basis of the processor crystal, or, as experts say, “stone”.

But let’s return to the digitized data stream, which in reality represents the presence or absence of a signal in an electrical circuit, because it is this that the transistor processes. But in order to make such signals readable (distinguishable from each other), they are supplied in pulses, which are created by a clock generator integrated into the architecture of the processor itself.

In the best modern ones, up to 5,000,000,000 (five billion!) pulses occur in one second. This value is measured in gigahertz (GHz) and is the clock speed of the processor core that performs the main computing functions. The bigger it is, the better.

But the additional hertz comes at the cost of increased power consumption and increased heat.

Do you know the frequency of your CPU?

There are several ways to find out the clock speed of the processor installed on your computer:

  • Look at the passport located in the box from the CPU;
  • Find “My Computer” on the monitor, open “Properties” in its context menu and examine the general parameters of the device;

  • Install programs AIDA64 or CPU-Z, which show the most detailed information about your processor.

Counting cores and gigahertz

In reality, a more objective indicator of CPU speed is the number of operations performed per unit of time. And this is already influenced by the number of microtransistors capable of simultaneously processing several signals. You may have heard something about nanotechnology, but the smaller the computing element, the more of them can be placed on the processor “stone”.

Also, the clock performance of the processor is determined by it (optimization of interaction between individual modules) and the number of threads (channels for simultaneous access to the core).

In addition, the CPU uses multiple cores to handle multiple tasks simultaneously. Moreover, there are processors for smartphones with different clock frequencies of individual cores: 4 energy-efficient (1.8 GHz) and 4 powerful (over 2.3 GHz). Multi-core devices installed on a PC have their own optimization algorithm, which gives the cores the opportunity to operate at different clock frequencies.

Since I’ve touched on the topic of multi-cores, I’ll tell you about one common misconception regarding our main topic. Some users, buying, for example, an Intel Core 2 Quad processor with a frequency of each core of 2.5 GHz, believe that they will receive a device capable of delivering 4 x 2.5 = 10 billion cycles per second.

This, my friends, is a fallacy. Because this will not make the clock generator work faster. The only thing I can please you with is that each core can theoretically perform a separate operation, but this usually requires several clock cycles.

Overclocking, throttling and heating

Here I consider it necessary to answer a frequently asked question: what is more important when choosing a processor, the number of cores or the clock speed.

Both indicators determine the performance of the processor, so 2 cores at 4.5 GHz can perform no worse than 4 at 2.5 GHz. It all depends on the tasks being performed and on the architecture implemented in the chip.

True, there is still one caveat: you won’t add cores to the CPU, but you can overclock the processor by increasing its clock frequency. There are several ways to do this, but they all require certain conditions to be met:

  • Theoretical possibility of overclocking the processor;
  • Resistance of its elements to work at high temperatures or the presence of an additional effective cooling system;
  • Required overclocking potential of the motherboard.

There are even several inexpensive CPUs that are most suitable for such a frequency upgrade: AMD FX-6300, AMD FX-4350, AMD Athlon X4 860K, Intel Pentium G3258.

You've probably already noticed that in our conversation about clock speed, the phenomenon of processor heating is periodically mentioned. These two parameters are closely interrelated. It is already clear that an artificial increase in temperature will entail an increase in the CPU temperature.

What happens if, for certain reasons, the processor itself heats up (failure or contamination of the cooler, drying out of thermal paste, working in hot weather)?

In this case, CPU developers have provided a throttling function that monitors the temperature of the chip and, when critical values ​​are reached, automatically reduces the clock speed of the cores and, accordingly, the performance of the entire system.

Finally, I would like to note that the RAM, the system bus of the motherboard, and even the cache memory of the processor itself have their own operating frequency, but it is the core clock frequency that is the maximum.

Remember this so as not to accidentally get confused in terms and devices.

This is where I end my story, and I will prepare a new article with the goal of delighting you with new interesting information from the life of computer hardware.

* There are always pressing questions about what you should pay attention to when choosing a processor, so as not to make a mistake.

Our goal in this article is to describe all the factors affecting processor performance and other operational characteristics.

It's probably no secret that the processor is the main computing unit of a computer. You could even say – the most important part of the computer.

It is he who processes almost all processes and tasks that occur in the computer.

Be it watching videos, music, Internet surfing, writing and reading in memory, processing 3D and video, games. And much more.

Therefore, to choose C central P processor, you should treat it very carefully. It may turn out that you decide to install a powerful video card and a processor that does not correspond to its level. In this case, the processor will not reveal the potential of the video card, which will slow down its operation. The processor will be fully loaded and literally boiling, and the video card will wait its turn, working at 60-70% of its capabilities.

That is why, when choosing a balanced computer, Not costs neglect the processor in favor of a powerful video card. The processor power must be enough to unleash the potential of the video card, otherwise it’s just wasted money.

Intel vs. AMD

*catch up forever

Corporation Intel, has enormous human resources and almost inexhaustible finances. Many innovations in the semiconductor industry and new technologies come from this company. Processors and developments Intel, on average by 1-1,5 years ahead of the engineers' achievements AMD. But as you know, you have to pay for the opportunity to have the most modern technologies.

Processor pricing policy Intel, is based both on number of cores, amount of cache, but also on "freshness" of architecture, performance per clockwatt,chip process technology. The meaning of cache memory, the “subtleties of the technical process” and other important characteristics of the processor will be discussed below. For the possession of such technologies as well as a free frequency multiplier, you will also have to pay an additional amount.

Company AMD, unlike the company Intel, strives for the availability of its processors for the end consumer and for a competent pricing policy.

One could even say that AMD– « People's stamp" In its price tags you will find what you need at a very attractive price. Usually a year after the company has a new technology Intel, an analogue of technology appears from AMD. If you are not chasing the highest performance and pay more attention to the price tag than to the availability of advanced technologies, then the company's products AMD– just for you.

Price policy AMD, is based more on the number of cores and very little on the amount of cache memory and the presence of architectural improvements. In some cases, for the opportunity to have third-level cache memory, you will have to pay a little extra ( Phenom has a 3 level cache memory, Athlon content with only limited, level 2). But sometimes AMD spoils his fans possibility to unlock cheaper processors to more expensive ones. You can unlock the cores or cache memory. Improve Athlon before Phenom. This is possible thanks to the modular architecture and the lack of some cheaper models, AMD simply disables some blocks on the chip of more expensive ones (software).

Cores– remain practically unchanged, only their number differs (true for processors 2006-2011 years). Due to the modularity of its processors, the company does an excellent job of selling rejected chips, which, when some blocks are turned off, become a processor from a less productive line.

The company has been working for many years on a completely new architecture under the code name Bulldozer, but at the time of release in 2011 year, the new processors did not show the best performance. AMD I blamed the operating systems for not understanding the architectural features of dual cores and “other multithreading.”

According to company representatives, you should wait for special fixes and patches to experience the full performance of these processors. However, at the beginning 2012 year, company representatives postponed the release of an update to support the architecture Bulldozer for the second half of the year.

Processor frequency, number of cores, multi-threading.

During times Pentium 4 and before him - CPU frequency, was the main processor performance factor when selecting a processor.

This is not surprising, because processor architectures were specially developed to achieve high frequencies, and this was especially reflected in the processor Pentium 4 on architecture NetBurst. High frequency was not effective with the long pipeline that was used in the architecture. Even Athlon XP frequency 2GHz, in terms of productivity was higher than Pentium 4 c 2.4 GHz. So it was pure marketing. After this error, the company Intel realized my mistakes and returned to the side of good I started working not on the frequency component, but on performance per clock. From architecture NetBurst I had to refuse.

What same for us gives multi-core?

Quad-core processor with frequency 2.4 GHz, in multi-threaded applications, will theoretically be the approximate equivalent of a single-core processor with a frequency 9.6 GHz or 2-core processor with frequency 4.8 GHz. But that's only in theory. Practically However, two dual-core processors in a two-socket motherboard will be faster than one 4-core processor at the same operating frequency. Bus speed limitations and memory latency take their toll.

* subject to the same architecture and amount of cache memory

Multi-core makes it possible to perform instructions and calculations in parts. For example, you need to perform three arithmetic operations. The first two are executed on each of the processor cores and the results are added to the cache memory, where the next action can be performed with them by any of the free cores. The system is very flexible, but without proper optimization it may not work. Therefore, optimization for multi-cores is very important for processor architecture in an OS environment.

Applications that "love" and use multithreading: archivers, video players and encoders, antiviruses, defragmenter programs, graphic editor, browsers, Flash.

Also, “lovers” of multithreading include such operating systems as Windows 7 And Windows Vista, as well as many OS kernel based Linux, which work noticeably faster with a multi-core processor.

Most games, sometimes a 2-core processor at a high frequency is quite enough. Now, however, more and more games are being released that are designed for multi-threading. Take at least these SandBox games like GTA 4 or Prototype, in which on a 2-core processor with a frequency lower 2.6 GHz– you don’t feel comfortable, the frame rate drops below 30 frames per second. Although in this case, most likely the reason for such incidents is “weak” optimization of games, lack of time or “indirect” hands of those who transferred games from consoles to PC.

When buying a new processor for gaming, you should now pay attention to processors with 4 or more cores. But still, you should not neglect 2-core processors from the “upper category”. In some games, these processors sometimes feel better than some multi-core ones.

Processor cache memory.

is a dedicated area of ​​the processor chip in which intermediate data between processor cores, RAM and other buses is processed and stored.

It runs at a very high clock speed (usually at the frequency of the processor itself), has very high throughput and the processor cores work directly with it ( L1).

Because of her shortage, the processor can be idle in time-consuming tasks, waiting for new data to arrive in the cache for processing. Also cache memory serves for records of frequently repeated data, which, if necessary, can be quickly restored without unnecessary calculations, without forcing the processor to waste time on them again.

Performance is also enhanced by the fact that the cache memory is unified, and all cores can equally use data from it. This provides additional opportunities for multi-threaded optimization.

This technique is now used for Level 3 cache. For processors Intel there were processors with unified level 2 cache memory ( C2D E 7***,E 8***), thanks to which this method appeared to increase multi-threaded performance.

When overclocking a processor, the cache memory can become a weak point, preventing the processor from being overclocked beyond its maximum operating frequency without errors. However, the plus is that it will run at the same frequency as the overclocked processor.

In general, the larger the cache memory, the faster CPU. In which applications exactly?

All applications that use a lot of floating point data, instructions, and threads make heavy use of the cache memory. Cache memory is very popular archivers, video encoders, antiviruses And graphic editor etc.

A large amount of cache memory is favorable games. Especially strategies, auto-simulators, RPGs, SandBox and all games where there are a lot of small details, particles, geometry elements, information flows and physical effects.

Cache memory plays a very important role in unlocking the potential of systems with 2 or more video cards. After all, some part of the load falls on the interaction of processor cores, both among themselves and for working with streams of several video chips. It is in this case that the organization of cache memory is important, and a large level 3 cache memory is very useful.

Cache memory is always equipped with protection against possible errors ( ECC), if detected, they are corrected. This is very important, because a small error in the memory cache, when processed, can turn into a gigantic, continuous error that will crash the entire system.

Proprietary technologies.

(hyper-threading, HT)–

the technology was first used in processors Pentium 4, but it didn’t always work correctly and often slowed down the processor more than it speeded it up. The reason was that the pipeline was too long and the branch prediction system was not fully developed. Used by the company Intel, there are no analogues of the technology yet, unless you consider it an analogue? what the company’s engineers implemented AMD in architecture Bulldozer.

The principle of the system is that for each physical core, one two computing threads, instead of one. That is, if you have a 4-core processor with HT (Core i 7), then you have virtual threads 8 .

The performance gain is achieved due to the fact that data can enter the pipeline already in the middle of it, and not necessarily at the beginning. If some processor blocks capable of performing this action are idle, they receive the task for execution. The performance gain is not the same as that of real physical cores, but comparable (~50-75%, depending on the type of application). It is quite rare that in some applications, HT negatively affects for performance. This is due to poor optimization of applications for this technology, the inability to understand that there are “virtual” threads and the lack of limiters for the load of threads evenly.

TurboBoost – a very useful technology that increases the operating frequency of the most used processor cores, depending on their load level. It is very useful when the application does not know how to use all 4 cores and loads only one or two, while their operating frequency increases, which partially compensates for performance. The company has an analogue of this technology AMD, is technology Turbo Core.

, 3 dnow! instructions. Designed to speed up the processor in multimedia computing (video, music, 2D/3D graphics, etc.), and also speed up the work of programs such as archivers, programs for working with images and video (with the support of instructions from these programs).

3dnow! – quite old technology AMD, which contains additional instructions for processing multimedia content, in addition to SSE first version.

*Specifically, the ability to stream process single-precision real numbers.

Having the latest version is a big plus; the processor begins to perform certain tasks more efficiently with proper software optimization. Processors AMD have similar names, but slightly different.

* Example - SSE 4.1(Intel) - SSE 4A(AMD).

In addition, these instruction sets are not identical. These are analogues with slight differences.

Cool'n'Quiet, SpeedStep CoolCore Enchanted Half State(C1E) AndT. d.

These technologies, at low loads, reduce the processor frequency by reducing the multiplier and core voltage, disabling part of the cache, etc. This allows the processor to heat up much less, consume less energy, and make less noise. If power is needed, the processor will return to its normal state in a split second. On standard settings Bios They are almost always turned on; if desired, they can be disabled to reduce possible “freezes” when switching in 3D games.

Some of these technologies control the rotation speed of fans in the system. For example, if the processor does not need increased heat dissipation and is not loaded, the processor fan speed is reduced ( AMD Cool'n'Quiet, Intel Speed ​​Step).

Intel Virtualization Technology And AMD Virtualization.

These hardware technologies make it possible, using special programs, to run several operating systems at once, without any significant loss in performance. It is also used for the proper operation of servers, because often more than one OS is installed on them.

Execute Disable Bit AndNo eXecute Bit – technology designed to protect a computer from virus attacks and software errors that can cause the system to crash through buffer overflow.

Intel 64 , AMD 64 , EM 64 T – this technology allows the processor to work both in an OS with a 32-bit architecture and in an OS with a 64-bit architecture. System 64 bit– from the point of view of benefits, for the average user it differs in that this system can use more than 3.25GB of RAM. On 32-bit systems, use b O A larger amount of RAM is not possible due to the limited amount of addressable memory*.

Most applications with 32-bit architecture can be run on a system with a 64-bit OS.

* What can you do if back in 1985, no one could even think about such gigantic, by the standards of that time, volumes of RAM.

Additionally.

A few words about.

This point is worth paying close attention to. The thinner the technical process, the less energy the processor consumes and, as a result, the less it heats up. And among other things, it has a higher safety margin for overclocking.

The more refined the technical process, the more you can “wrap” in a chip (and not only) and increase the capabilities of the processor. Heat dissipation and power consumption are also reduced proportionally, due to lower current losses and a reduction in core area. You can notice a tendency that with each new generation of the same architecture on a new technological process, energy consumption also increases, but this is not the case. It’s just that manufacturers are moving towards even greater productivity and are stepping beyond the heat dissipation line of the previous generation of processors due to an increase in the number of transistors, which is not proportional to the reduction in the technical process.

Built into the processor.

If you don't need a built-in video core, then you shouldn't buy a processor with it. You will only get worse heat dissipation, extra heating (not always), worse overclocking potential (not always), and overpaid money.

In addition, those cores that are built into the processor are only suitable for loading the OS, surfing the Internet and watching videos (and not of any quality).

Market trends are still changing and the opportunity to buy a powerful processor from Intel Without a video core, it drops out less and less. The policy of forced imposition of the built-in video core appeared with processors Intel under the code name Sandy Bridge, the main innovation of which was the built-in core on the same technical process. The video core is located together with processor on one chip, and not as simple as in previous generations of processors Intel. For those who do not use it, there are disadvantages in the form of some overpayment for the processor, the displacement of the heating source relative to the center of the heat distribution cover. However, there are also advantages. Disabled video core, can be used for very fast video encoding technology Quick Sync coupled with special software that supports this technology. In future, Intel promises to expand the horizons of using the built-in video core for parallel computing.

Sockets for processors. Platform lifespan.


Intel has harsh policies for its platforms. The lifespan of each (the start and end dates of processor sales for it) usually does not exceed 1.5 - 2 years. In addition, the company has several parallel developing platforms.

Company AMD, has the opposite policy of compatibility. On her platform on AM 3, all future generation processors that support DDR3. Even when the platform reaches AM 3+ and later, either new processors for AM 3, or new processors will be compatible with old motherboards, and it will be possible to make a painless upgrade for your wallet by changing only the processor (without changing the motherboard, RAM, etc.) and flashing the motherboard. The only nuances of incompatibility may arise when changing the type, since a different memory controller built into the processor will be required. So compatibility is limited and not supported by all motherboards. But in general, for the budget-conscious user or those who are not used to completely changing the platform every 2 years, the choice of processor manufacturer is clear - this AMD.

CPU cooling.

Comes standard with processor BOX-a new cooler that will simply cope with its task. It is a piece of aluminum with a not very high dispersion area. Efficient coolers with heat pipes and plates attached to them are designed for highly efficient heat dissipation. If you do not want to hear extra noise from the fan, then you should purchase an alternative, more efficient cooler with heat pipes, or a closed or open-type liquid cooling system. Such cooling systems will additionally provide the ability to overclock the processor.

Conclusion.

All important aspects affecting the performance and performance of the processor have been considered. Let's repeat what you should pay attention to:

  • Select manufacturer
  • Processor architecture
  • Technical process
  • CPU frequency
  • Number of processor cores
  • Processor cache size and type
  • Technology and instruction support
  • High-quality cooling

We hope this material will help you understand and decide on choosing a processor that meets your expectations.

The processor is perhaps the most important component of a computer, because it is the one that processes data. One of the most important characteristics is processor clock speed, which indicates the number of operations performed per second. However, such a definition for this parameter is quite meager to actually understand its importance, so we will try to understand this issue in more detail.


The scientific definition of clock speed is as follows: it is the number of operations that can be processed within one second and is measured in Hertz. But why, many will say, was this particular unit of measurement adopted as the basis? In physics, this value reflects the number of oscillations over a certain period of time, but here everything is essentially identical, only instead of oscillations, the number of operations is calculated, that is, a repeating value over a certain time interval.

If we talk specifically about processors, then non-identical operations are performed in it; all sorts of parameters are calculated here. Well, accordingly, their total number is the clock frequency.

Nowadays the technical capabilities of the processor are at the highest level, so the Hertz value is not used, but here it is more acceptable to use megahertz or gigahertz. This step was taken so as not to add a huge number of zeros, thereby simplifying human perception of the value (see table).

How is clock speed calculated?

In order to understand this, you need to understand at least a little physics, but we will try to explain the topic in “human” language so that this question is understandable to any user. To understand this complex computing process, it is necessary to provide a list of processor components that in one way or another affect this parameter:

  • clock resonator - made of quartz crystal, which is placed in a special protective shell;
  • clock generator - a part that converts oscillations into pulses;
  • data bus.

Due to the application of voltage to the clock resonator, it generates oscillations of electric current.

These oscillations are then transmitted to a clock generator, which converts them into pulses. Through the data bus, they are transferred, and the result of the calculations is sent directly to the user.

This method is used to calculate the clock frequency. And although everything seems to be extremely clear, many people misunderstand these calculations, and, accordingly, the interpretation is erroneous. First of all, this is due to the fact that the processor has not one core, but several.

How does clock speed relate to cores?

In fact, a multi-core processor is no different from a single-core processor, except that it contains not one clock resonator, but two or more. To work together, they are connected by an additional data bus.

And this is where people get confused: the clock speeds of multiple cores do not add up. Simply, when processing data, the load is redistributed on each of the cores, but this does not mean at all that this will be performed strictly proportionally, and the processing speed does not increase from this. For example, there are some games in which the developers do not allow the possibility of redistributing the load across cores at all and the toy only works on one.

For example, consider the case of four pedestrians. They walk as fast as possible, next to each other, and one of them carries a heavy burden. If he starts to get tired, someone else can take this load so as not to lose speed, but at the same time they will not generally go faster and reach the end point earlier, because everyone is already moving at the limit of their capabilities.

By the way, at , the number of cores of course plays a role. Yes, and manufacturers have begun to install an increasing number of them, but it should be remembered that the data bus may simply not cope and performance may not only increase, but also be significantly inferior to processors with fewer cores. For example, Intel is currently releasing I7 processors, which can accommodate only two cores, while it will process data much faster than even eight core ones (as a rule, this company did not release models with so many cores; AMD processors really There are also ten nuclear ones). The developers simply focus not only on increasing the clock speed, but also on the processor architecture as a whole. This may concern both an increase in the data bus between clock resonators and other aspects.

Comparison of clock speeds of Intel processors

Clock signal or clock signal- a signal used to coordinate the operations of one or more digital circuits.

The clock signal usually has a square wave shape and oscillates between high and low logic levels.

Active The clock signal level is usually called the moment of switching from one state to another. An active level is a high level if the circuit switches at the instant specified by the edge of the clock signal, that is, when the clock signal switches from a low level to a high level. If switching occurs at the edge of the clock signal, then the active level is low.

The processor clock frequency determines the minimum time slice during which the processor performs some conditional elementary operation. Clock speeds are measured in megahertz and determine quantitative characteristics of the performance of computer systems as a whole. The higher the clock speed, the faster the CPU runs.

Each microprocessor has a certain number of memory elements called registers, an arithmetic logic unit (ALU), and a control unit.

Registers are used to temporarily store the instruction being executed, memory addresses, data being processed, and other internal information of the microprocessor. The ALU performs arithmetic and logical data processing.

The control device generates the necessary control signals for the internal operation of the microprocessor and its communication with other equipment through the external buses of the microprocessor.

Clock frequency

Clock frequency- the frequency of synchronizing pulses of a synchronous electronic circuit, that is, the number of synchronizing cycles coming from outside to the input of the circuit in one second. The term is usually used to refer to components of computer systems. To a very first approximation, the clock frequency characterizes the performance of the subsystem (processor, memory, etc.), that is, the number of operations performed per second. However, systems with the same clock frequency can have different performance, since different systems may require different numbers of clock cycles to perform one operation (usually from fractions of a clock cycle to tens of clock cycles), and in addition, systems using pipelined and parallel processing can perform several operations simultaneously on the same clock cycles.

Clock period- the length of time between adjacent switches made in the same direction.
The frequency of the clock signal is the reciprocal of the period.
Clock duty cycle- the ratio of the clock signal period to the duration of its active state (the duty cycle of the meander is two).
Fill factor- the reciprocal of the duty cycle.

In processor technology

Tact processor or processor core clock - the interval between two pulses of the clock generator, which synchronizes the execution of all processor operations.

Performing various elementary operations can take from fractions of a clock cycle to many clock cycles, depending on the instruction and processor. The general trend is to reduce the number of cycles spent on performing elementary operations.

Configuration of such frequencies in multi-core processors

The process of calculating the frequency of a multi-core processor, as a determining factor in CPU performance, is different from calculating the performance of a single-core processor. Using the example of a 4-core processor, you can see each core operating at a clock frequency of 3 GHz. That is, each core can perform an equal number of calculations per unit time, provided that all cores are loaded with the calculation process. The application running on the user’s computer (be it a game or an archiver) is responsible for loading the kernels with “work.” It cannot be said that a 4-core processor with a frequency of 3 GHz will have the same performance as a single-core processor with a frequency of 12 GHz. It's not like that at all. The essence of multi-core processor performance comes down to the fact that the computing process must be divided into parallel threads that can be executed at the same time by different processor cores. Intel calls parallel threads or multithreading Hyper-Threading.

Maximum processor frequency

AMD proudly announced that on August 31, 2011, Team AMD FX set a new Guinness World Record for the highest clock speed of any computer processor. The new record is 8.429 GHz, which is 121 MHz higher than the previous achievement (8.308 GHz). To achieve this, Team AMD FX used the new eight-core AMD FX-8150 processor, which was cooled using liquid helium. This achievement allowed AMD to demonstrate the high optimization potential of new processors, the official release of which is scheduled for the fourth quarter of this year.