What do utilities consist of? Purpose, main elements and structure of the motherboard. Obligations of management companies and housing and communal services

Every month we all, regardless of average monthly income, place of residence or apartment size, receive Mailbox envelopes of “happiness” from the “Unified Settlement Center”, inside of which there is a receipt for payment of utility services. Someone pays for it without looking, someone carefully considers the services indicated in the lines and their cost. And someone is interested in knowing what the sum “to be paid” allocated is made up of in bold at the end of the receipt. Our article today is for the most curious.

general information

All payments are divided into basic payments and additional ones. Gas supply, electricity supply, hot water supply, cold water supply - these are the so-called basic payments. The figures for them are fixed, established by the regional energy commission and are not subject to revision during the year. Radio point, TV antenna, intercom - these are all so-called Additional services. These are all non-fixed amounts that may vary depending on certain conditions.

Almost always, the land under the house and adjacent to it is municipally owned, therefore, the entire local area must be cleaned continuously. Garbage must be removed daily, and snow and ice must be removed from the sidewalk at all times. According to the law, both the city and the management company, which is obliged to monitor the local area, are responsible for all accidents associated with injuries on ice (slipped, fell, lost consciousness, woke up, cast). However, residents very rarely go to court to seek compensation from the management company or the district administration after such injuries, which encourages connivance on the part of the latter.

Details

Let's look at the receipt line by line:

Pitfalls: the elevator is paid only by residents of those entrances that are equipped with it, in which it operates. If no one is cleaning the entrance, and the surrounding area looks more like a battlefield, you can safely demand a recalculation of payment for the maintenance of housing and repairs of household property, that is, for this particular line. Beforehand, it makes sense to record on video or photo the facts of violation of housing maintenance rules, and also to enlist the support of neighbors. The management company or HOA will be required to make a recalculation for all residents.

The line “Payment for renting housing” is paid by residents whose apartment is in municipal ownership. The decree of the Head of the Administration of Yekaterinburg approved the amount of 1.65 rubles. for 1 sq. m of total living space per month.

Line “Heating” - in winter in Yekaterinburg everyone pays, regardless of the type of house, size of apartment or floor. However, the cost of the service is calculated based on utility consumption standards approved by the authority local government. In 2012, the unified “average” heating standard established in Yekaterinburg is 0.033 Gcal/sq. m per month. Multiplying this figure by the area of ​​the apartment, we get the volume of consumption of this service, which, in turn, is multiplied by the rate approved by the Government of the Sverdlovsk Region.

Meanwhile, it is worth especially noting that in A number of cities (Kirov, Izhevsk, Kazan) and regions (Arkhangelsk, Vladimir, Omsk, Kursk) of Russia comply with the housing legislation of the Russian Federation on the application of differentiated standards for heating. For example, in Izhevsk the heating standard for 5-16 (or more)-storey buildings built before 1999 is and after 1999 does not exceed 0.016 and 0.009 Gcal/sq.m., respectively. per month, which is 2-3.5 times higher than ours.

The line “Hot water supply” is divided into two parts: “Water supply” is the volume of water consumed, “Water heating” is a value indicating how much the consumed volume is heated. The calculation for this line depends only on two factors: the presence of water meters in the apartment or the number of citizens registered in the apartment. Consumption standards for the sub-items “supply”, “heating” 5.02 cubic meters And. 0.24 Gcal per person per month, respectively. With absence individual devices hot water metering tariff for payment for hot water supply is equal to RUB 322.43 per person per month.

Services are calculated in the same way for the lines “Cold water supply” and “Water disposal”. In the first case, there is a consumption standard 5.62 cubic meters per person per month; there is a tariff for water supply services in the amount RUB 20.80 for 1 cubic meter cold water. If there are no cold water meters, the payment tariff is RUB 116.90 per person per month. In the second, the consumption standard 10.34 cubic meters per person per month; tariff for sewerage services 10.76 rub. for 1 cubic meter water waste (total volume of cold and hot water consumed). In the absence of individual water meters, the tariff for payment for sewerage is 111.26 rub. per person per month. If there are devices, then we multiply the amount of water consumed (discharged) by the tariff and get the accrual amount.

When supplying an apartment with gas, the calculation is similar to the lines associated with water. There is a monthly human standard: 10.2 cubic meters and price 3.07 rub. for 1 cubic meter gas There is a metering device - we pay for the volume actually used, if not - according to the standard. The line “Gas supply” is present only in receipts for houses equipped with gas stoves.

The “Electricity” line is calculated based on the following parameters: consumed kilowatts multiplied by the tariff. Wherein, basic tariff differs for houses equipped with stationary gas stoves and electric stoves. In the first case, the basic one (aka daily) tariff is 2.43 rubles/kWh, in the second - 1.71 rubles/kWh. If you have a two-tariff electric meter installed in your apartment, then you can pay significantly less, since from 11 pm to 7 am, as well as on weekends and holidays, you can pay a special night tariff, which for houses with gas stoves is 1. 14 rubles/kWh, and with electric ones - 0.79 rubles/kWh. In the receipt, this moment is reflected in two lines “Electricity”, where the tariff established depending on the type of equipment at home is multiplied by the amount of electricity consumed at the corresponding tariff.

Let's quickly go through the columns that have not yet been covered. If you are a labor veteran, a disabled person of the 1st or 2nd group, a liquidator of the Chernobyl accident, or belong to another category of beneficiaries approved by federal or regional legislation, as well as a monthly payment for housing public utilities exceeds 22% of the income of all apartment residents, then you have the right to reduce the tariff to 50%. To receive benefits, you need to contact the appropriate management company or homeowners association. It is the amount of the benefit for specific services as a percentage that is displayed in the “Tariff reduction” column.

In the "Measures" column social support» indicates the amount of compensation provided to you by the state based on available benefits, but in rubles.

The “Recalculations” column reflects deductions for the time when services were not provided, for example, during “pressure testing” of pipes in the summer, or were provided improperly, for example, during the day the electricity was turned off several times due to wear and tear of communications.

Column "Excess maximum level payment" allows you to deduct from the amount of utility bills money that is accrued for rent in excess of those approved by the local government.

Column "Payable" - total amount for payment on each line of the receipt. The rows of this column are summed up to produce the total “Payable” amount.

Adviсe:

Pay attention to the line “Home equipment”. It should indicate the type of stove installed in your apartment - electric or gas. The electricity tariff depends on this, as well as the presence of the “Gas supply” line in the receipt.

If your receipt contains the “Radio point” item, but you do not use it, then you need to write a statement to U-Tel (this organization is in charge of communication services in apartment buildings) with a request to disconnect you from it. By law, you are not required to pay for radio point services from the moment you submit this application and this item should disappear from the receipt automatically.

Be sure to check the area of ​​your apartment indicated in the “quantity/volume of consumption” column with the real one, based on the certificate of ownership or an extract from the BTI.

Heating is calculated exclusively for full months. That is, if the heating is turned on in mid-October and turned off in mid-April, the heating receipts that you receive for these months will be calculated for the full month. However, in receipts for November and May, the cost of the service must be recalculated according to the number of days when the service was actually provided. That's why, It always makes sense to mark the start and end day of the heating season in your apartment, so that you can subsequently check the accruals.

An important point being discussed now is the installation of water and light meters. The question is purely individual. If you are a pedant who carefully monitors every “horn” on the mixer, often goes on business trips, rarely drinks tea and supports the “Medvedev line” for saving Russia’s resources, then, of course, installing water meters is necessary. There will be savings. If water drips from the tap in your kitchen, you take a shower every day and do laundry often, then the savings become doubtful. Because, saving 50 rubles a month and spending about 5,000 rubles on installing meters, it will take 8 years to recoup the money invested. You can safely rely on this figure, since during this time tariffs will still increase, but the bank interest that you can get during this time will be another 5,000 rubles. As for two-tariff electricity meters, their installation is more expedient, since, in principle, it does not limit residents in consuming the service, but allows them to save due to the inexpensive price of the meter and its installation (about 2,000 rubles), as well as a preferential tariff on weekends and holidays. holidays when most people spend time at home. Savings with a two-tariff meter average more than 100 rubles per month, which pays for itself much faster.

In principle, it most likely makes sense to wait with the installation of meters; if the state is seriously concerned about the problem of preserving resources, then it may not be you who will pay for the installation of meters.

If you think that the receipt contains unreasonably large numbers or an incorrect calculation has been made, you can contact the United clearing center" They are obliged to answer you and explain everything within 5 working days.

In case of non-payment of the receipt on time (“Pay by”), penalties in the amount of 1/300 of the refinancing rate of the Central Bank of the Russian Federation will be charged on the amount of debt. When subsequently paying for housing and communal services, the amount of the principal debt is first repaid, and only after it has been fully repaid, the money received as rent goes towards repaying the penalty.

Dead souls in receipts: journalistic investigation

The owner of an apartment in one of the residential buildings serviced by the Verkh-Isetskaya Management Company contacted the editors of the Legal Newspaper “Status” with a request to explain why the utility bills were increased.

Thus, the owner explained that until December 2011, the amount of payment for utilities ranged from 1,900 rubles. up to 2600 rub. (with heating). In December 2011, a receipt was received for the amount of 7181.30 rubles. (recalculated to the amount of 3378.66 rubles). Subsequently, utility bills increased by more than 1,000 rubles.

When preparing this material, we turned to Evgeny Borovik for comment. Evgeniy drew attention to the fact that just from November 2011, the number of actually living citizens in the line increased from 0 to 2. Most likely, this was the reason for the increase in utility bills.

After this, the owner contacted the management company, and according to him, the employees of the management company explained that the collectors were going through the apartments, and one of the neighbors said that 2 people lived in this apartment. At the same time, the owner himself explains that he recently purchased the apartment and is currently making renovations; no one lives in the apartment permanently.

We decided to send the journalist a request to CJSC Management Company Verkh-Isetskaya, asking for the following information:

1. On what basis were utility bills increased;

2. How is the number of living citizens determined, and on the basis of what legal norms is this done.

3. If an error is identified, how should the owner recalculate and what documents should be provided (with regulatory justification).

Of course, such a letter can be sent by any citizen, not only the media, but there is a certain advantage - due to Part 2 of Article 40 of the Law Russian Federation"About means mass media» The requested information must be provided within seven days. In the next issue of our newspaper we will write about how the management company responded to our request.

Meanwhile, the situation of “attributing” living citizens to a receipt is quite common. Today you pay for two people actually living in the apartment, tomorrow you brought guests into the house, let’s face it, they made some noise, after which your “beloved” neighbors will only be happy to inform the management company that not 2 people live in your apartment, but all 10. So be sure to check your receipts.

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Main printed circuit board computer is called motherboard. It is also called system board or main board. All the main components of the computer are located on the motherboard, these are processor slots, memory slots and expansion ports. The motherboard is directly or indirectly connected to every component of the computer.

In this article, we will look at the main components of a PC motherboard, which play the most significant role in its operation, as well as the main ports of the motherboard.

The central processing unit is also known as the microprocessor, processor, or brain of the computer. It is responsible for processing data, executing user and program commands, and performing logical and mathematical calculations.

A processor chip is identified by the processor type and manufacturer. This information is usually marked on the chip itself. For example, Intel 386, AMD 386, Cyrix 486, Pentium MMX, Intel Core 2Duo or iCore 7. If the processor is not connected, you may want to consider a processor socket. It can be from version 1 to 8. Certain processors can only work with a certain type of socket.

Random access memory (RAM)

RAM slots are the most basic parts of the motherboard. RAM, Random Access Memory or RAM is a memory chip in which certain data is temporarily stored. RAM is much faster than other storage devices.

In other words, this workplace your computer, all data and active programs, and the processor can receive them at any time and does not need to load them from hard drive.

RAM is volatile, which means that it loses its contents when the power is turned off. It is different from volatile memory such as hard disks, flash memory and does not require a power source.

When the computer is turned off correctly, all data in RAM is saved to HDD. The next time you boot, the memory contents are restored.

Basic Input/Output System (BIOS)

BIOS stands for Basic Input Output System. This is part non-volatile memory, read-only, which contains software low level who controls everything Hardware and performs link between it and the operating system.

All motherboards include a small block of memory that is used to initialize the hardware at boot time and control the hardware while running operating system. BIOS contains all required code for controlling the keyboard, screen, disks, data ports. All BIOS programs stored in non-volatile memory.

CMOS RAM

CMOS RAM or Complimentary Metal Oxide Semiconductor Random Access Memory is a small block of volatile memory that is powered by a battery. This is necessary so that the data contained in this memory is not erased during a reboot, but at the same time it can be reset.

CMOS memory is used to store basic BIOS settings, for example: first boot device, frequencies of computer components, time and date, power consumption settings. BIOS and CMOS are the main parts of the motherboard, without which the computer cannot start.

Cache memory

Cache memory is a small block of high-speed, volatile memory that speeds up your computer by pre-caching data from slower RAM. The data is then sent to the processor very quickly when needed.

Typically processors have a built-in cache chip called a Level 1 or L1 cache, but it can also be supplemented with a Level 2 cache, L2. IN modern processors L1 and L2 caches are built into the processor, and the third level cache is implemented as an external cache.

Extension bus

The extension bus is the communication path between the processor and peripheral devices that are connected through the motherboard ports. It consists of a series of slots on the motherboard. Expansion cards are connected to the bus. The most common expansion bus is PCI, they are used in personal computers and other devices. Buses are capable of transferring data, signals, memory addresses, and control signals from one device to another.

In addition to PCI, there are expansion buses such as ISA and EISA. Extension buses are very important because they allow users to add missing functionality.

Chipsets

A chipset is a group of small chips that coordinate the flow of data from key computer components. This is the processor, RAM, secondary cache. and all other devices located on the buses. The chipset also controls data transfer from the hard drive and other IDE-connected devices.

Every computer has two chipsets, these are very necessary parts of the computer motherboard:

• North Bridge- also called a memory controller, is responsible for controlling data transfer between the processor and RAM. Physically, he is in the middle between them. Sometimes you can also find the name GMCH (Graphic and Memory Controller Hub);
• South Bridge- also known as an extension controller, it manages communication between slow extensions. As a rule, several buses are connected using it.

CPU timer

The processor timer synchronizes the operation of all computer components and provides the main clock signal for the processor. The processor timer breathes life into a piece of quartz by constantly transmitting a stream of impulses into it. For example, a 200 MHz processor frequency means 200 million pulses per second from the timer. 2 GHz is already two billion pulses. Similarly, for any data device, a timer is used to synchronize the pulses between the sender and the receiver.

And the real-time timer or system timer keeps track of the time of day and makes this data available to programs. The time sharing timer switches the processor from one program to another, allowing the operating system to divide its time between programs.

Switches and jumpers

Switches and jumpers are not such important components of the motherboard, but they also have their own function. You can use them to change various parameters connecting components.

• Jumpers- these are small pins on the motherboard. They are used to short circuit multiple pins to implement a specific configuration, such as clearing CMOS, changing power mode, and more. The functionality of each jumper is described in the documentation for the specific motherboard.
• Switches- metal bridges that allow you to close electrical circuit. Typically, the switch consists of two pins and a plastic plug; by placing the switch differently, you can change the board configuration.

conclusions

In this article, we looked at the main components of a computer motherboard. All of them are necessary for the normal operation of your machine, and if any of them fail, the computer will not be able to function normally. I hope this information was useful to you.

The motherboard is the main mounting part to which internal components and external peripheral devices are connected. She happens to be basic element any desktop, laptop, tablet or pocket computer. This publication will discuss the design of the motherboard, as well as the purpose of its main components.

Motherboard provides connectivity various devices PC. Its mandatory elements are a connector or processor socket(CPU), chipset, connectors for memory modules. In addition, the required PC elements are: BIOS chip, controllers, various connectors for power supply, connectors for connecting computer elements and devices.

BIOS is a chip with certain test and boot programs for the CPU, because at the initial stage the processor does not yet know how to work with all the devices located in the PC. This chip is located in close proximity to the CPU and is powered by a separate battery - a “tablet”, located on the board, next to the expansion slots.

• Initial testing occurs without the participation of the processor. Only after checking electronic elements computer to ensure there is no short circuit, and that the currents in the power supply match, the BIOS “allows” the power supply to supply the required current to the board and processor.
• Afterwards, the CPU reads a certain algorithm of actions from the BIOS, thanks to which the performance of all PC components is tested. If everything is in order, then the operating system located on the hard drive is launched. After this, all control of the PC is transferred exclusively to the operating system.

Due to its operation, the BIOS, unnoticed by the user, performs one of essential functions in computer.

CPU socket

The processor connector or socket is the largest on the motherboard. CPU socket models vary in appearance, location and number of contacts. Depending on the processor model, they are of two types:

1. Socket, from English. "nest". It is a rectangular or square connector with many contact holes located along its perimeter. The processor is mounted in such a socket - horizontally.
2. A slot connector (from English “slot”) is a long row of contacts located in a plastic case. It is designed for vertical mounting of the CPU. Today, this type of connector is practically not used.

Purpose and design features of the chipset

The motherboard chipset is usually two different chips called the north bridge and the south bridge. They got their names solely from their location: north bridge is located near the CPU, and the southern one is lower, near the video card connector and expansion slots. They are the most important link between the hardware and the PC processor. In some modern models motherboards a chipset consisting of a single chip can be used. It's connected with design features processor that has taken over the functions south bridge.

The Northbridge communicates between the CPU and the fastest PC components and the Southbridge. Because of high load, the bridge gets quite hot, so most often it is equipped with a radiator for better cooling.

• The Northbridge is connected to the CPU by a high-speed bus. The most modern today is considered QPI bus, from Intel.
• To connect the bridge with the video adapter, the AGP 3.0 bus, or PCI Express 3.0, the mass production of which began in 2012, can be used.
• Microcircuits bridge each other via one of the presented interfaces: PCI, Hub Link, DMI or HyperTransport.

The southern part of the chipset coordinates the operation of slower PC components, and also ensures data transfer from these components to the northern chip.

The south bridge consists of controllers: for communication with the northern part of the chipset, expansion cards, peripheral devices and components, hard drives and other slow devices

The most common interfaces in modern PCs are: USB 2.0 - 3.0; WI-FI and Ethernet. To connect the south bridge with hard drives, PCI buses are used, as well as more modern buses with SATA and SCSI and SAS. To coordinate the operation of the bridge with the BIOS, the LPC bus with a clock frequency of 33.3 MHz is most often used.

Connectors for memory modules and other expansion cards

In any computer there is a temporary storage of information called RAM. It is a module with several chips on board, which is mounted in special connectors, so-called slots. Typically, they are located near the processor and the northern part of the chipset. The memory module slots are equipped with locks that are designed to protect against improper installation. Their number varies from 2 to 6, depending on the cost of the motherboard and its form factor.

An important component of the motherboard is the PCI-Express slot for connecting a discrete video adapter, without which it is impossible to display images on the monitor (unless the computer has an integrated video card).

In addition to the above slots, the board contains pin connectors for connecting data buses hard drives. Previously, it was used for this IDE interface. On modern PCs, the SATA interface is most often used.

On any motherboard mandatory there are ports for connecting additional peripheral devices. As a rule, the main set includes: power connectors for fans and buttons located on the panel system unit; LEDs indicating the operation of the hard drive and the presence of power. In addition, on the back of the board there are: several USB ports; LAN connector for connecting cable to network card; audio input and output connectors; HDMI connector, etc. In most models you can find PS/2 connectors for connecting a keyboard and pointing device.

To power the motherboard, as well as all electronic and mechanical components, a 20 or 24-pin connector is installed on it, which receives voltage from the power supply located in the PC case.

Not sure about choosing an MP model - ! We will select the optimal model.

Motherboard Types

The motherboard form factor is a certain standard that determines the size of the motherboard, its mounting method in the PC case, the presence and location of ports and bus interfaces, as well as CPU and RAM connectors.

Currently, there are several form factors of motherboards:

• ATX is the largest motherboard, which has many slots and a convenient location of water-out ports.
• EATX is a motherboard no different from ATX, except for the dimensions, which are 30.5 cm x 33 cm.
• MicroATX is a smaller version of the ATX motherboard. It was designed for PCs that do not require configuration changes, so it has 4 expansion slots. As a rule, such boards are equipped with a 24-pin power connector and have dimensions of 24.5 cm x 24.5 cm.
• BTX is a motherboard designed for creating small system units. However, it has 7 expansion slots and measures 26.7 x 32.5 cm.
• Micro BTX is a smaller copy of the BTX motherboard, which has 4 expansion slots and dimensions 26.7 x 26.4 cm.
• MiniITX is the smallest modern computer motherboard. Its dimensions are 17 cm by 17 cm.
• SSIEEB and SSICEB. Motherboards of these form factors are used to create servers. Dimensions are: 30.5 x 33.0 cm and, respectively, 30.5 x 25.9 cm.

If you decide to build a PC, then we recommend using an ATX form factor motherboard for this. Plenty of free space and options for changing configurations will allow you to fully enjoy building and using your home PC.