The evolution of the development of personal computers. Generations of computers - the history of the development of computing technology
In the history of the development of civilization there have been several information revolutions- transformation of social relations due to fundamental changes in the field of information processing, information technologies. The consequence of such transformations was the acquisition of a new quality by human society.
The fourth (70s of the XX century) is associated with the invention of microprocessor technology and the advent of the personal computer. On microprocessors and integrated circuits computers are being created computer networks, data transmission systems ( information communications). This period is characterized by three fundamental innovations:
electronic;
miniaturization of all components, devices, instruments, machines;
creation of software-controlled devices and processes.
The third (late 19th century) was due to the invention of electricity
The second (mid-16th century) was caused by the invention of printing, which radically changed industrial society, culture, and organization of activities.
thanks to which the telegraph, telephone, and radio appeared, making it possible to quickly transmit and accumulate information in any volume.
The first revolution was associated with the invention of writing, which led to a gigantic qualitative and quantitative leap. There is an opportunity to transfer knowledge from generation to generation.
First period 1945-1955
First period 1945-1955
It is known that the computer was invented by an English mathematician Charles Babbage at the end of the eighteenth century. His “Analytical Engine” was never able to really work because the technology of that time did not meet the requirements for the manufacture of precision mechanics parts that were necessary for computer technology. It is also known that this computer did not have operating system.
Some progress in the creation of digital computers occurred after the Second World War. In the mid-40s, the first tube computing devices were created. At that time, the same group of people participated in the design, operation, and programming of the computer. It was more of a research work in the field of computer technology, rather than the use of computers as a tool for solving any practical problems from other application areas. Programming was carried out exclusively in machine language. There was no talk about operating systems; all tasks of organizing the computing process were solved manually by each programmer from the control panel. There was no other system software, except for libraries of mathematical and utility routines.
Second period 1955 – 1965
Second period 1955 – 1965
Started in the mid-50s new period in the development of computer technology, associated with the emergence of a new technical base - semiconductor elements. Second-generation computers became more reliable, now they were able to work continuously for so long that they could be entrusted with performing truly practically important tasks. It was during this period that the personnel was divided into programmers and operators, operators and computer developers.
During these years, the first algorithmic languages appeared, and consequently the first system programs - compilers. The cost of CPU time has increased, requiring a reduction in the time overhead between program runs. The first systems appeared batch processing, which simply automated the launch of one program after another and thereby increased the processor load factor.
Batch processing systems were the prototype of modern operating systems; they became the first system programs, designed to control the computing process.
During the implementation of batch processing systems, a formalized task control language was developed, with the help of which the programmer informed the system and the operator what work he wanted to perform on the computer. A collection of several tasks, usually in the form of a deck of punched cards, is called a task package.
Third period 1965 – 1980
The next important period in the development of computers dates back to 1965-1980. At this time, there was a transition in the technical base from individual semiconductor elements such as transistors to integrated circuits, which gave much greater opportunities to the new, third generation of computers.
This period was also characterized by the creation of families of software-compatible machines. The first family of software-compatible machines built on integrated circuits, a series of IBM/360 machines appeared. Built in the early 60s, this family was significantly superior to second-generation machines in terms of price/performance. Soon the idea of software-compatible machines became generally accepted.
Software compatibility also required operating system compatibility. Such operating systems would have to work on both large and small computing systems, with a large and small number of diverse peripherals, in the commercial field and in the field of scientific research. Operating systems built with the intention of satisfying all these conflicting requirements turned out to be extremely complex monsters. They consisted of many millions of lines of assembly code, written by thousands of programmers, and contained thousands of errors, causing an endless stream of corrections. In each new version operating system, some errors were corrected and others were introduced.
However, despite its enormous size and many problems, OS/360 and other similar operating systems on third-generation machines did satisfy most consumer requirements. The most important achievement of the OS of this generation was the implementation of multiprogramming. Multiprogramming is a way of organizing a computing process in which several programs are alternately executed on one processor. While one program is performing an I/O operation, the processor is not idle, as was the case when executing programs sequentially (single-program mode), but is executing another program (multi-program mode). In this case, each program is loaded into its own section random access memory, called a section.
Another innovation is spooling. Spooling at that time was defined as a way of organizing the computing process, according to which tasks were read from punched cards onto disk at the pace at which they appeared in the computer center, and then, when the next task was completed, a new task was loaded from disk into the free partition .
Along with the multiprogram implementation of batch processing systems, new type OS - time sharing systems. The multiprogramming option used in time sharing systems is aimed at creating for everyone individual user illusions of sole use of a computer.
Fourth period 1980 - present
The next period in the evolution of operating systems is associated with the advent of large-scale integrated circuits (LSI). During these years, there was a sharp increase in the degree of integration and a reduction in the cost of microcircuits. The computer became available to the individual, and the era of personal computers. From an architectural point of view, personal computers were no different from the class of minicomputers such as the PDP-11, but their prices were significantly different. If a minicomputer made it possible to have your own computer department of an enterprise or a university, the personal computer has made this possible for the individual.
Computers became widely used by non-specialists, which required the development of "friendly" software, which put an end to the caste of programmers.
In networked OSes, users must be aware of the presence of other computers and must log into another computer to use its resources, mainly files. Each machine on the network runs its own local operating system, different from the OS standalone computer availability additional funds, allowing the computer to work on the network. The network OS has no fundamental differences from the OS of a single-processor computer. It definitely contains software support for network interface devices (driver network adapter), as well as tools for remote login to other computers on the network and means of access to deleted files, however, these additions do not significantly change the structure of the operating system itself.
Two now giant companies played a very important role in the development of computers: Microsoft® and Intel®. The first of them greatly influenced the development of computer software, while the second became known thanks to the best microprocessors it produced.
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1. First generation of computers
The first generation of computers saw the light of day in 1942, when the first electronic digital computer. This invention belongs to the American physicist Atanasov. In 1943, Englishman Alan Turing develops "Colossus" - secret computer, designed to decipher intercepted messages from German troops. These computers ran on lamps and were the size of a room. In 1945, mathematician John von Neumann proved that a computer could efficiently perform any calculation using the appropriate program control without changing the hardware. This principle became the basic rule for future generations of high-speed digital computers. 2. Second generation of computers
In 1947, engineers John Bardeen and Walter Brattain invented the transistor. They were quickly introduced into radio engineering and replaced the inconvenient and large vacuum tube. In the 60s XX century transistors became the elementary basis for second-generation computers. The performance of machines began to reach hundreds of thousands of operations per second, Volume internal memory increased hundreds of times compared to first generation computers. Programming languages began to actively develop high level: FORTRAN, ALGOL, COBOL.
3. Third generation of computers
The transition to the third generation is associated with significant changes in computer architecture. Machines were already running on integrated circuits. It was possible to run several programs on one computer. The speed of many machines reached several million operations per second. began to appear magnetic disks, widely used input/output devices.
4. Fourth generation of computers.
Another revolutionary event in electronics occurred in 1971, when the American company Intel announced the creation of a microprocessor. By connecting microprocessors to I/O devices, external memory, received a new type of computer - microcomputer, 4th generation of computers. These computers were small, cheap, and used color graphic display, manipulators, keyboard. In 1976, the first personal computer was created - Apple II. The first domestic personal computer is Agat (1985). Since 1980, the American company IBM has become a trendsetter in the computer market. In 1981, it released its first personal computer, PC, and formed another line in the development of 4th generation computers - supercomputers. Among domestic machines, Elbrus computers were classified as supercomputers. Fifth generation computers are machines of the near future. Their main quality should be a high intellectual level. In fifth-generation machines, voice input will be possible, voice communication, machine “vision” and “touch”. Much has already been done in this direction.
How can you live without computers, smartphones and other gadgets today? It's even harder to realize that 50 years ago these technologies could only be learned from science fiction books.
We offer small excursion into history to learn how personal computers developed.
The first computers were created after the end of World War II. They were very large and expensive (cost even more than latest version modern MacBook). Therefore, only employees of serious organizations, banks or leading universities could play with such toys. But the development of home PCs (personal computers) occurred in the second half of the twentieth century. The first is the PDP-8 mini-computer. It was released in March 1965 by Digital Equipment Corporation.
It should be noted that when we call the PDP-8 a mini-computer, we mean that it did not take up the entire room. The PDP-8 was no more than regular refrigerator, which sounds pretty wild for our time. Its price was $18,500, but this did not stop computer enthusiasts from buying this miracle of technology. Therefore, the PDP-8 became not only the first home PC, but also the first commercially successful computer.
The next “breakthrough” was made by the MITS company when it released the Altair 8800 computer in 1975. It is considered one of the “revolutionaries” of home PCs, as well as the first link in the formation of personal computer manufacturing companies.
What is the secret of the Altair 8800? It was compact, productive and inexpensive. For just $439, anyone could purchase parts for a computer and assemble it with the help of Popular Electronics magazine. For $621 you could get it already finished model. Altair 8800 had micro Intel processor 8080 s clock frequency 2 MHz, and also process 8 and 16-bit numbers. By the way, Bill Gates started his career thanks to the Altair 8800!
At the same time, two more computer enthusiasts - Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniak - decided to create a company that would develop computer equipment. Their truly revolutionary project can be called the Apple II, which appeared in 1977. Jobs and Wozniak demonstrated what a computer should be like general use. Since that time, the technology could be used not only by enthusiasts or radio amateurs, but also by ordinary citizens.
IBM PC 5150
In 1981, IBM joined the craze and released the IBM PC 5150, which may still be found in some government offices.
The computer is considered one of the most successful home PCs in the world. In total, 20 million devices were sold. The PC was equipped with a MOS 6510 processor. It could also be connected to a TV and used as a game console.
Apple Macintosh
Next successful product Apple became the Macintosh, which finally defined the type of personal computer. The main innovations that the product flaunted were a mouse-type manipulator and a completely GUI. In fact, it is the granddaddy of all modern iMacs and MacBooks. It is also the first computer to say hello to its future users.
IBM PC Convertible is the world's first laptop, which was introduced in 1986 IBM company. It had an Intel 80C88 processor and 256 kilobytes of RAM, which could be expanded to 512 kilobytes. The laptop also boasted two disk drives and a modem. The PC sold very poorly. It was heavy, not fast enough, and the LCD monitor was difficult to read. The IBM PC Convertible is still the first laptop to go into mass production and influence further development industry.
A little about the future
Technologies never stop developing. Nowadays, most companies are trying to create high-performance computers that do not take up much space. The leader is Apple, whose products over the past ten years have gained enormous popularity in all corners of the Earth.
Large personal computers are beginning to give way to ultra-thin laptops and tablets (although there are still enthusiasts who build and upgrade PCs themselves). According to experts, in 100 years the functions of a laptop or PC will be performed by smart watch, smartphones and hologramophones, and powerful PCs will be used to calculate large amounts of information.
One of greatest inventions of its time. Billions of people use computers in their Everyday life worldwide.
Over the decades, the computer has evolved from a very expensive and slow device to today's extremely smart machines with incredible processing power.
No single person is credited with inventing the computer; many believe that Konrad Zuse and his Z1 machine were the first in a long line of innovations that brought us the computer. Konrad Zuse was a German who gained fame for creating the first freely programmable mechanical computing device in 1936. Zuse's Z1 was created with an emphasis on 3 main elements that are still used in modern calculators. Later, Konrad Zuse created the Z2 and Z3.
The first Mark series computers were built at Harvard. MARK was created in 1944, and this computer was the size of a room, measuring 55 feet long and 8 feet high. MARK could perform a wide range of calculations. It became a successful invention and was used by the US Navy until 1959.
The ENIAC computer was one of the most important advances in computing. It was commissioned during World War II by the American military. This computer used vacuum tubes instead of electric motors and levers for fast calculations. Its speed was thousands of times faster than any other computing device at the time. This computer was huge and had a total cost of $500,000. ENIAC was in service until 1955.
RAM or Random Access Memory was introduced in 1964. The first RAM was a metal detecting plate located next to a vacuum tube that detected differences in electric charges. It was easy way storing computer instructions.
There were many innovations in 1940. Manchester developed the telecommunications Research Establishment. It was the first computer to use a stored program, and it became operational in 1948. Manchester MARK I continued to live in 1951 and showed enormous progress.
UNIVAC was built by the creators of ENIAC. It was the fastest and most innovative computer capable of processing many calculations. It was a masterpiece of its time and was highly praised by the public.
IBM, the first personal computer widely used and available to people. IBM 701 was the first computer general purpose, developed by IBM. New computer language called "Fortran" was used in the new 704 model. The IBM 7090 was also a great success and dominated both office computer over the next 20 years. In the late 1970s and 1980, IBM developed the personal computer known as the PC. IBM has had a huge influence on the computers used today.
With the growth of the personal computer market in the early and mid-1980s, many companies realized that graphical interfaces were more user-friendly. This led to the development of an operating system for named Windows, Microsoft. The first version was called Windows 1.0 and later came Windows 2.0 and 3.0. Microsoft is becoming more and more popular today.
Today, computers are extremely powerful and more affordable than ever. They have practically infiltrated every aspect of our lives. They are used as powerful tool communication and trade. The future of computers is huge.
1. First generation of computers
The first generation of computers saw the light of day in 1942, when the first electronic digital computer was created. This invention belongs to the American physicist Atanasov.
In 1943, Englishman Alan Turing develops Colossus, a secret computer designed to decipher intercepted messages from German troops. These computers ran on lamps and were the size of a room.
In 1945, mathematician John von Neumann proved that a computer could efficiently perform any calculation using appropriate software control without changing the hardware. This principle became the basic rule for future generations of high-speed digital computers.
2. Second generation of computers
In 1947, engineers John Bardeen and Walter Brattain invented the transistor. They were quickly introduced into radio engineering and replaced the inconvenient and large vacuum tube. In the 60s XX century transistors became the elementary basis for second-generation computers. The performance of machines began to reach hundreds of thousands of operations per second. The volume of internal memory increased hundreds of times compared to first-generation computers. High-level programming languages began to actively develop: Fortran, Algol, Cobol.
3. Third generation of computers
The transition to the third generation is associated with significant changes in computer architecture. Machines were already running on integrated circuits. It was possible to run several programs on one computer. The speed of many machines reached several million operations per second. Magnetic disks began to appear and input/output devices were widely used.
4. Fourth generation of computers.
Another revolutionary event in electronics occurred in 1971, when the American company Intel announced the creation of a microprocessor. By connecting microprocessors with input-output devices and external memory, we got a new type of computer - a microcomputer, the 4th generation of computers. These computers were small, cheap, and used a color graphic display, manipulators, and keyboard.
In 1976, the first personal computer was created - Apple II. The first domestic personal computer is Agat (1985). Since 1980, the American company IBM has become a trendsetter in the computer market. In 1981, it released its first personal computer, PC, and formed another line in the development of 4th generation computers - supercomputers. Among domestic machines, Elbrus computers were classified as supercomputers.
Fifth generation computers are machines of the near future. Their main quality should be a high intellectual level. In fifth-generation machines, voice input, voice communication, machine “vision” and “touch” will be possible. Much has already been done in this direction.
