Panama Canal country. Panama Canal: description, history, coordinates and interesting facts. The Canal and the Panamanian "separatists"
And container ships. Maximum size a vessel that can pass through the Panama Canal has become a de facto standard in shipbuilding, receiving the name Panamax.
Vessels are guided through the Panama Canal by the Panama Canal Pilot Service. The average time for a vessel to pass through the canal is 9 hours, the minimum is 4 hours 10 minutes. Maximum throughput- 48 ships per day. Every year, about 14 thousand ships carrying about 280 million tons of cargo pass through the canal structures. (5% of global ocean freight). The canal is overloaded, so the queue to pass through it is sold at auction. The total fee for a vessel's passage through the canal can reach $400,000. By 2002, more than 800 thousand vessels had already used the canal’s services.
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The original plan to build a canal connecting the two oceans dates back to the 16th century, but King Philip II of Spain banned the consideration of such projects, since “what God has united, man cannot separate.” In the 1790s. the canal project was developed by Alessandro Malaspina, his team even surveyed the canal construction route.
With the growth of international trade, interest in the canal revived by the early 19th century; in 1814, Spain passed a law establishing an interoceanic canal; in 1825, a similar decision was made by the Congress of Central American States. The discovery of gold deposits in California caused increased interest in the canal problem in the United States, and in 1848, under the Hayes Treaty, the United States received a monopoly in Nicaragua for the construction of all types of interoceanic communication routes. Great Britain, whose possessions adjoined Nicaragua, hastened to curb the expansion of the United States by concluding with them on April 18, 1850 the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty on a joint guarantee of the neutrality and security of the future interoceanic canal. Throughout the 19th century, two main options for directing the canal were considered: through Nicaragua (see Nicaraguan Canal) and through Panama.
However, the first attempt at construction shipping route on the Isthmus of Panama dates back only to 1879. The initiative in developing the Panama option was intercepted by the French. At that time, the attention of the United States was mainly attracted to the Nicaraguan variant. In 1879, in Paris, under the chairmanship of the head of the construction of the Suez Canal, Ferdinand Lesseps, the “General Interoceanic Canal Company” was created, the shares of which were purchased by more than 800 thousand people; the company bought from the engineer Wise for 10 million francs the concession for the construction of the Panama Canal, which he received from the Colombian government. in 1878. An international congress convened before the formation of the Panama Canal Company favored a sea-level canal; the cost of the work was planned at 658 million francs and the volume of excavation work was envisaged at 157 million cubic meters. yards In 1887, the idea of a lockless canal had to be abandoned in order to reduce the amount of work, since the company’s funds (1.5 billion francs) were spent mainly on bribing newspapers and members of parliament; only a third was spent on work. As a result, the company stopped making payments on December 14, 1888, and work was soon stopped.
The Panama scandal was clear evidence of the decomposition of the political and business elites of the French Third Republic and revealed the scale of corruption among the press. "Panama" has since become a household name for a major public bribery scam. The company went bankrupt, which led to the ruin of thousands of small shareholders. This adventure was called the Panama one, and the word “Panama” became synonymous with a scam, fraud on a grand scale. A court-appointed liquidator of the Panama Canal Company created the new company The Panama Canal, from the very beginning, was doomed to languish due to financial difficulties and the project's bad reputation.
Under the Treaty of 1903, the United States received in perpetual possession "a zone of land and lands under water for the construction, maintenance, operation, sanitary order and protection of the said canal," as provided for in Article 2 of the Treaty. Article 3 gave the United States all rights as if it were the sovereign of the territory. In addition, the United States became the guarantor of the independence of the Republic of Panama and received the right to maintain order in the cities of Panama and Colon in the event that the Republic of Panama, in the opinion of the United States, would be unable to maintain order on its own. The economic side of the Treaty repeated the Hay-Herran Treaty, which was not ratified by Colombia. On behalf of Panama, the agreement was signed by French citizen Philippe Bunau-Varia 2 hours before the official delegation of Panama arrived in Washington.
Construction began under the auspices of the US Department of Defense, and Panama effectively became a US protectorate.
In August 1945, Japan planned to bomb the canal.
Channel configuration
Due to the S-shape of the Isthmus of Panama, the Panama Canal is directed from the southeast (Pacific Ocean side) to the northwest (Atlantic Ocean). The canal consists of two artificial lakes connected by canals and deepened river beds, as well as two groups of locks. From the Atlantic Ocean, the three-chamber gateway “Gatun” connects Limon Bay with Lake Gatun. On the Pacific Ocean side, the two-chamber Miraflores lock and the single-chamber Pedro Miguel lock connect Panama Bay with the canal bed. The difference between the level of the World Ocean and the level of the Panama Canal is 25.9 meters. Additional water supply is provided by another reservoir - Lake Alajuela.
All canal locks are double-threaded, which ensures the possibility of simultaneous oncoming traffic of ships along the canal. In practice, however, usually both lines of locks work to allow ships through in the same direction. Dimensions of the lock chambers: width 33.53 m, length 304.8 m, minimum depth 12.55 m. Each chamber holds 101 thousand m³ of water. Guidance of large vessels through locks is provided by special small electric-powered railway locomotives called mules(in honor of mules, which previously served as the main draft force for moving barges along rivers).
The canal administration has established the following passage dimensions for vessels: length - 294.1 m (965 ft), width - 32.3 m (106 ft), draft - 12 m (39.5 ft) in fresh tropical water, height - 57, 91 m (190 ft), measured from the waterline to the highest point of the vessel. In exceptional cases, vessels may be granted permission to pass at a height of 62.5 m (205 ft), provided that the passage is in low water.
Along its length, the canal is crossed by two bridges. Along the canal route between the cities of Panama and Colon is laid highway and the railway.
Payments for channel passage
Canal tolls are officially collected by the Panama Canal Authority, a government agency of Panama. Duty rates are set depending on the type of vessel.
The amount of duty for container ships is calculated depending on their capacity, expressed in TEU (the volume of a standard 20-foot container). From May 1, 2006, the rate is $49 per TEU.
The amount of payment from other vessels is determined depending on their displacement. For 2006, the fee rate was $2.96 per ton up to 10 thousand tons, $2.90 for each of the subsequent 10 thousand tons and $2.85 for each subsequent ton.
The amount of dues for small vessels is calculated based on their length:
The future of the channel
On October 23, 2006, the results of the referendum on the expansion of the Panama Canal were summed up in Panama, which was supported by 79% of the population. The adoption of this plan was facilitated by the Chinese business structures that manage the channel. According to the plan, by 2016 the canal was to be modernized and would be able to accommodate oil tankers with a displacement of more than 130 thousand tons, which would significantly reduce the time it takes to deliver Venezuelan oil to China. Just at this time, Venezuela promised to increase oil supplies to China to 1 million
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At dawn, around six o'clock in the morning, we approached the Atlantic entrance to the Panama Canal. We were supposed to have a “scenic” passage along the canal all day.
No landings or stops were planned. There was a real jungle around and the sun was just rising.
Atlantic entrance to the Panama Canal // dmytrocherkasov.livejournal.com
The entrance to the Panama Canal looks like this. In the distance you can see many ships waiting their turn to pass through the canal. On the right is the port of Colon and the lighthouse at the entrance to the canal. Here, the pilot came on board. In the Panama Canal, the captain is obliged to hand over control to him. Navigation here is very difficult, so training lasts 8 years. Only about 200 people in the world navigate ships through the canal. The total length of the canal is about 80 kilometers. Although it's not that long, it takes approximately 8-10 hours to complete.
// dmytrocherkasov.livejournal.com
The first stage is to rise from the Atlantic Ocean to the artificial Lake Gatun, through a system of locks of the same name. The difference between water levels is 26 meters. It is to this height that the power of water lifts every ship. All this is located about a kilometer from the entrance to the canal. Gateways can work in both directions. But as a rule, work is planned so that first the flow is in one direction, and then in the other. Along with us, a little ahead, was a large container ship. We entered all the locks one after another. Every time you could see next step which awaits us. You see, he's on the left. And the small green-red arrow on the pier indicates that we need to go into the right lock.
// dmytrocherkasov.livejournal.com
Next year will mark 100 years since the opening of the canal. And although the French began to build the Panma Canal in 1879, this attempt was unsuccessful. Money was wasted, and mistakes were made in the design. The construction manager, Ferdinand Lesseps, failed to repeat the success Suez Canal. Thanks to political and financial pressure, the construction rights were transferred to the United States. This time, all leadership was concentrated in the hands of the army. And after 10 years, construction was successfully completed.
// dmytrocherkasov.livejournal.com
When you watch the ship enter the lock, it seems incredible that we can fit in such a narrow space. Moreover, the cost of a mistake here is enormous. On average, 36 ships pass this route every day. On the day we passed through the canal, the total number of ships was 57. Ship owners pay hundreds of thousands of dollars to pass through the canal. But it’s still much more profitable than making a detour of 13,000 kilometers, which requires 4 weeks of time.
// dmytrocherkasov.livejournal.com
Every year, 13,000 ships passing this route transport 172 million tons of cargo. Panama receives about $2 billion a year for using the canal.
// dmytrocherkasov.livejournal.com
The airlock doors weigh 680 tons each. When they close, they hide in a niche in the wall of the airlock.
// dmytrocherkasov.livejournal.com
They are powered by a giant hydraulic mechanism.
// dmytrocherkasov.livejournal.com
Our ship was Panamax class. This means the largest permissible size of a vessel to pass through the Panama Canal. Here you can see how much space was left from the side of our ship to the concrete wall. The width of the airlock chamber is 33.5 meters. The width of our ship is 32 meters. Accordingly, there was 75 centimeters left on each side in the ideal case. The length is 304.8 meters, while the length of the ship is 294 meters. I don’t know what kind of draft we had at that moment, but the minimum depth in the chamber was 12 meters 55 centimeters. All this reminds me of trying to take a horse into a regular bath to wash it.
// dmytrocherkasov.livejournal.com
It goes without saying that maneuvering in such conditions using only ship engines and rudders is impossible. Each ship is pulled through the locks by special locomotives. They are called mules. In addition to pulling the ship forward using 2.5-centimeter steel cables, the mules keep the ship in the middle, preventing it from hitting the concrete side. While passing through the locks, I looked at the GPS at what speed we were moving. Outwardly, it seemed like we were standing still. And only if you looked closely at the edge of the side, it was clear that we were still moving forward. It turned out that our speed at that moment was 3 kilometers per hour.
// dmytrocherkasov.livejournal.com
The mules are powered by electric traction. Each of them is capable of developing a pulling force of 35 tons. Between the rails there is another additional rail with a notch. Using a special gear, the mule clings to it in order to increase traction on the track. In total, about 100 locomotives are used on the canal. The cost of each of them is 2.1 million dollars. They work in teams of two, one in the cabin, directly controlling the speed and adjusting the tension of the cable. The second one is located outside, visually monitors the situation, and helps to remove and remove the steel cable for towing. See the orange chair outside? This is just for the second number.
// dmytrocherkasov.livejournal.com
The mule operators are controlled by junior pilots via radio channel. They are constantly located along the sides of the ship. Initially, ordinary ropes are wound onto the ship. These two workers in the boat are doing just that. They swim up to the side and pass the rope to the crew. Only then, with the help of it, the steel from the mules is pulled on board.
// dmytrocherkasov.livejournal.com
In addition, tugs actively assist during every maneuver. They help maintain the position of the vessel until the mules pull the ropes. Depending on the weight of the vessel, the number of mules may vary. Here you can see at least three mules on each side preparing to pull this container ship.
// dmytrocherkasov.livejournal.com
The ship rises solely with the help of gravity and water. In order to eliminate any turbulence and uneven water supply, it is pumped through hundreds of holes in the floor of the airlock chamber. Every day, 7.5 billion liters are spent on this fresh water from Lake Gatun.
Artificial Lake Gatun // dmytrocherkasov.livejournal.com
After the locks we find ourselves in one of the largest artificial lakes, Gatun. The main difference between the second attempt to build a canal was that the Americans decided not to build a canal at sea level. Instead, they noticed that the vicinity of the Chagres River is an almost ideal place for artificial flooding. An earthen dam was built to block the river. The total area of the lake is 418 square kilometers. This is one of the largest sources of fresh water in Panama.
// dmytrocherkasov.livejournal.com
In fact, all ships sail on top of the flooded jungle. The abundance of heavy rains helps maintain the water level in the lake. If the water level drops, then a limitation is imposed on the maximum draft of ships. Some have to be unloaded at the canal entrance to comply with regulations. Exceeding the level of 26 meters is also dangerous. Because if water flows through the sluice gates, it will be impossible to use the canal. In the area of the Gatun locks, there is a discharge dam to regulate the water level. At the time of construction, it was one of the largest in the world.
// dmytrocherkasov.livejournal.com
Before construction began, it was carried out great job to drain the surrounding area and kill mosquitoes. Jungles were cut down, swamps were drained, grass was mowed, and puddles were treated with kerosene to kill insect larvae. The French lost 20,000 people due to yellow fever and malaria. At that time it was not yet known that mosquitoes carried the disease. Thanks to such actions, it was possible to completely defeat yellow fever in the region, and reduce the number of cases of malaria infection to a minimum.
// dmytrocherkasov.livejournal.com
Along the entire route along the lake, various ships constantly came across us. Most of all there were container ships, tankers and such ships for transporting cars. The cruise ship was ours alone.
// dmytrocherkasov.livejournal.com
But to reach Pacific Ocean, the builders had to overcome the mountain range of Panama. This is the Culebra notch. In order to dig such a canal, the Americans reconstructed the old French railway, increasing its capacity tenfold. Moreover, it was destroyed by the great Panama earthquake of 1882. The earthquake was the final nail in the coffin of the French Panama Canal project. In addition, during the investigation it was revealed that a lot of funds were spent for other purposes. So the word "Panama" in French has become synonymous with a scam. The Centenary Bridge was recently built in one of the bottlenecks of the Culebra notch. It connects Southern and North America.
// dmytrocherkasov.livejournal.com
The height of the mountains that had to be overcome reached 80 meters. Every 3 years, an amount of rock equal in volume to the entire Suez Canal was removed from here.
// dmytrocherkasov.livejournal.com
This is the narrowest point of the canal. All ships that enter the Panama Canal install special equipment with a GPS receiver. At any moment, the pilot on his computer and the dispatcher see the position of all vessels. If visibility deteriorates, and rain and fog are not uncommon here, traffic is stopped.
// dmytrocherkasov.livejournal.com
In case of unforeseen circumstances and maneuvers, in the Culebra notch, we were constantly accompanied by tugboats.
// dmytrocherkasov.livejournal.com
We came across only small ships, and these were tourist boats. I think we were the number one impression for them during the entire excursion. It's not often that cruise ships enter the Panama Canal.
// dmytrocherkasov.livejournal.com
The ground around the canal is very unstable. It consists of soil, shale and clay. During rains, all this absorbs moisture, swells and causes mudslides. That’s why these floating dredges work on the canal every day. Using a drill on the bow, the soil is crushed and then sucked out along with the water. This pipeline releases soil approximately 10 kilometers from the canal. In addition, the channel is being expanded to increase its capacity.
// dmytrocherkasov.livejournal.com
Where the bottom is especially strong, floating drilling rigs like these work. They make many holes in the bottom into which explosives are placed. Then, after detonation, the rock is easier to remove using dredges or floating excavators.
// dmytrocherkasov.livejournal.com
Finally we came to the second gate on the way to the Pacific Ocean - Pedro Miguel. These locks lower us 9.5 meters into another artificial lake - Miraflores. To the right, behind the already familiar container ship, we see a huge construction site. For the centenary of the canal, a large-scale reconstruction began here. The main problem of the canal now is that it is not capable of passing large ocean-going ships. A century ago, this size of airlock chambers seemed fantastic and satisfied all needs. But now this is clearly not enough.
// dmytrocherkasov.livejournal.com
The reconstruction will cost $5 billion. This time, the US military is only building the Atlantic Gateways. On the Pacific side, work is being carried out by a consortium of European companies.
// dmytrocherkasov.livejournal.com
The main problem here is that from the Pacific Ocean, due to high tides, the load on the locks is enormous. And considering that the gate will have to be made even larger and higher than the previous ones, the task becomes not trivial. Therefore, there will be sliding gates similar to those currently operating in Antwerp. New locks are being built in parallel with the old ones, and they will work together. Due to this, it is planned to almost double the channel’s income.
// dmytrocherkasov.livejournal.com
And finally final stage, on the way to the Pacific Ocean, Miraflores Lock. Here we were lowered from lake level to the level of the Pacific Ocean.
// dmytrocherkasov.livejournal.com
On the left side is the building for visitors to the Panama Canal. There was great amount people. They shouted and welcomed us to Panama in unison. Before this, there was also a competition on the ship for the best welcome poster. And everyone who did something on the left side held them while passing by. I also wanted to make a wonderful drawing with the word from three letters, but I thought that there would be no time to greet the people with the word “peace” and at the same time take photographs. :-)
// dmytrocherkasov.livejournal.com
When releasing water, you no longer need to worry much about turbulence. So she just exits the portal on the left. Ahead is Panama City, and right in front of the ship’s bow is another drawbridge across the Panama Canal.
Panama City, Panama // dmytrocherkasov.livejournal.com
To be honest, the skyline of Panama City impressed me. I never expected to see such a modern city with skyscrapers. In some ways, this development is reminiscent of Dubai in terms of the variety of building shapes. Although, due to seismic activity, the houses are clearly not that high-rise.
Bridge of the Americas, Panama // dmytrocherkasov.livejournal.com
Before entering the Pacific Ocean, there is another bridge across the canal - the Bridge of the Americas. Behind it we can already see ships in the roadstead, waiting for their turn to pass along our path only in the other direction.
dmytrocherkasov
13/04/2013Pages: 1
The world is full of amazing buildings and structures built by the best engineers in history. Among the most important structures in human history is the Panama Canal. This shipping canal acts as a bridge between the Pacific and Atlantic zones, which greatly facilitated trade by sea. For example, a ship traveling between San Francisco and New York had to travel 14,000 miles, but the Panama Canal reduced that distance to 6,000 miles. Construction was started by the French in the 19th century, but they were never able to complete the project due to various problems. The American government took over the project in 1904 and completed it a decade later, making history. The canal is now managed by the Panamanian government.
The Panama Canal not only benefits traders by facilitating the transit of goods, but is also important from a tourism perspective. Canal cruises are very popular and if you are planning to visit this area then don't miss the chance to travel along the canal on a cruise ship. During this trip you will be able to explore the many exotic attractions of Panama. Travel agencies will offer you hundreds of different cruise packages, including a number of popular ports such as New York, Miami, Los Angeles, New Orleans, etc. This tour will allow you to see some of the most beautiful beaches in the world and visit exotic Panama City.
History of the Channel
In fact, the history of the canal goes back much deeper - to the 16th century. In 1513, Spanish explorer Vasco Nunez de Balboa became the first European to notice the extremely thin Isthmus of Panama separating the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. Balboa's discovery sparked the search for a natural waterway linking the two oceans. In 1534, after no natural route was found, Holy Roman Emperor Charles V ordered an investigation into the possibility of constructing a canal. Inspectors ultimately determined that the construction shipping canal impossible in these places.
Start of construction
An interesting fact in the history of the Panama Canal is another construction attempt undertaken by the designer of the Suez Canal. No serious construction attempts were made until the 1880s. In 1881 French company Ferdinand de Lesseps, designer of the Suez Canal in Egypt, began digging a canal through Panama. The project was plagued by poor planning, technical problems and tropical diseases that killed thousands of workers. De Lessep intended to build a canal at sea level, in the image of Suez, without any locks. But the excavation process turned out to be much more difficult than expected. Gustave Eiffel, who designed the famous tower in Paris, was hired to create the locks, but De Lessep's company went bankrupt in 1889. At the time, the French had unprofitably invested more than $260 million in the construction, excavating more than 70 million cubic meters of earth.
The collapse of the enterprise caused a big scandal in France. De Lessep and his son Charles, along with Eiffel and several other company executives, were accused of embezzlement, mismanagement and fraud. In 1893 they were found guilty, sentenced to prison and fined. After the scandal, Eiffel retired from business and devoted himself to scientific research. A new French company was created to take over the assets of the failed business and continue the channel, but it soon followed the same path.
During the 1800s, the United States was also interested in building a canal linking the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. For both economic and military reasons, they considered Nicaragua a more advantageous location than Panama. However, this plan was abandoned thanks to the efforts of Philippe-Jean Bounau-Varilla, a French engineer who was involved in both French canal projects. In the late 1890s, Buno-Varilla began lobbying American legislators to purchase French canal assets in Panama, and eventually convinced many that Nicaragua had dangerous volcanoes and Panama was a less dangerous option.
In 1902, Congress authorized the purchase of French assets of the Panama Canal. But Colombia, of which Panama was a part at the time, refused to ratify the agreement. With the support of Buno-Varilla and the tacit approval of President Theodore Roosevelt, Panama rebelled against Colombia and declared independence. After this, US Secretary of State John Hay and Buno-Varilla, as representative of the provisional government of Panama, agreed on the Hay-Buno-Varilla Agreement, which gave America the right to an area greater than 500 square miles in which a canal could be built. According to the agreement, the channel was completely transferred to the control of the Americans. It was agreed that the United States would shell out approximately $375 million for construction, including a $10 million payment to Panama, and $40 million to buy out French assets.
A century after the United States completed the Panama Canal, shipping connections through Nicaragua still remain possible: In 2013 Chinese company announced a $40 billion agreement with the Nicaraguan government for the right to build such a waterway.
Death of workers
More than 25,000 workers officially died during the construction of the Panama Canal. The canal's builders faced many obstacles, including difficult terrain, hot, humid weather, heavy rain, and rampant tropical diseases. Earlier French efforts resulted in the death of more than 20,000 workers, and American efforts fared little better—between 1904 and 1913, about 5,600 workers died due to illnesses or accidents.
Many of these earlier deaths were caused by yellow fever and malaria. According to doctors of the time, these diseases were caused by polluted air and poor conditions. By the early 20th century, however, medical experts had discovered key role mosquitoes as carriers of these diseases, allowing them to significantly reduce the number of deaths among workers. Special sanitary measures were carried out, which included draining swamps and ponds, removing possible insect spawning grounds and installing protective screens on windows in buildings.
Capacity of the Panama Canal
Between 13,000 and 14,000 ships use the canal every year.
American ships use the canal the most, pursued by China, Chile, Japan, Colombia and South Korea. Each ship transiting through the canal must pay a fee based on its size and cargo volume. The fee for the largest vessels can reach approximately $450,000. The smallest toll ever paid was 36 cents, paid in 1928 by American adventurer Richard Halliburton, who conquered the canal. Today, approximately $1.8 billion in tariffs are collected annually.
On average, a ship takes 8 to 10 hours to pass through the canal. Moving through it, a system of locks lifts each vessel 85 feet above sea level. Ship captains are not allowed to take control during transit; instead, specially trained personnel take over control. In 2010, the millionth ship crossed the canal since its opening.
Who controls the Panama Canal?
The United States transferred control of the canal to Panama in 1999. In the years following the canal's opening, relations between America and Panama became tense. Questions arose about control over the canal itself and the area adjacent to it. In 1964, Panamanians rioted because they were not allowed to fly the Panamanian national flag next to the US flag in the canal zone. Following the uprising, Panama temporarily broke off diplomatic relations with the United States. In 1977, President Jimmy Carter and General Omar Torrijos signed agreements transferring control of the canal to Panama as of 1999, but giving the United States the right to use a force to defend the waterway from any threat to its neutrality. Despite the discontent of many politicians who did not want their country to lose its authority over the canal, the US Senate ratified the Torrijos-Carter Accords in 1978. Control was transferred peacefully to Panama in December 1999.
Expansion of the Panama Canal
IN this moment The canal is being expanded to accommodate modern megaships. Work on the expansion began in 2007 at a cost of $5.25 billion, which will allow the canal to accommodate post-Panamax vessels. These vessels are larger than the so-called Panamaxes, which are built to fit the dimensions of the canal. The expanded canal will be able to accommodate cargo ships carrying 14,000 20-foot containers, nearly three times its current volume. The expansion project will be completed at the end of 2015, but the canal will still not be able to accommodate some of the world's largest container ships.
Approximately 236.4 million liters of fresh water are used for the passage of one ship through the Panama Canal. The water comes from Lake Gatun, formed during the construction of the canal by damming the Chagres River. With an area of 262 square kilometers, Gatun was once the largest artificial lake in the world.
From ancient times to the present day, many waterways - artificial canals - have been created in the world. The main tasks of such artificial ones are to facilitate the passage of the waterway and reduce the distance. The most famous channels- Panama and Suez.
The Panama Canal is an artificial waterway on the territory of Panama, crossing the Isthmus of Panama in its lowest part and connecting the Atlantic and. This is one of the most important transport waterways international significance. The Panama Canal is considered a true marvel of engineering. One of its channels has the highest throughput in the world.
The canal stretches 50 miles from Panama (on the Pacific coast) to Colon (on the coast Atlantic Ocean). It supports the passage of over 12,000 ocean-going ships per year.
History of the Panama Canal
The discoverer of Panama, who took the first step on its land, was the Spaniard Rodrigo de Bastidas. He ended up here in 1501. On the same ship, Vasco Nunez de Balboa sailed with a group of settlers who remained in Panama.
The possibility of building a canal through Central America was mentioned already in 1550 by Antonio Galvao. He argued that this canal would significantly facilitate the passage between the Atlantic and Pacific coasts. He considered the Darien Isthmus a suitable place for this - a narrow, 48-kilometer strip between Central and. , which at that time owned the American colonies, considered this proposal unprofitable, since it could undermine the country’s monopoly on land routes in these areas.
The greatest interest in this idea arose during the California Gold Rush (1848). In 1850, both countries (both countries claimed ownership of the canal) concluded the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty, according to which the parties refused to acquire exclusive rights to the future canal and pledged to guarantee its neutrality. According to this treaty, both countries temporarily stopped seizing new territories around Panama. The future canal was declared open to everyone who wished to join its construction.
However, despite all the preparations, the canal began to be built, since the USA and Great Britain were not interested in cooperation, each of these countries counted only on personal ownership. I took advantage of this.
In 1878, France received a 99-year concession for the construction of the canal from, which it was part of until 1903.
In 1879, the General Interoceanic Canal Company was created under the leadership of Ferdinand de Lesseps, the builder of the Suez Waterway. Two years later, work began on its construction.
The groundbreaking ceremony for the canal took place on January 1, 1880 at the mouth. It passed under the French flag. However, in 1886 work was stopped. The difficulties seemed insurmountable. The rocky ground was incredibly hard, and the workers began to die one after another. The construction site became notorious, to the point that some groups of workers brought their own coffins with them from France. Epidemics of malaria and plague raged in the construction area. There is evidence that about 20,000 people died there.
In 1887 the company went bankrupt due to high prices, financial scams and high worker mortality. In addition, in France, thousands of shareholders were completely ruined. In May 1891, a trial took place against the owners of the company. It turned out that many officials were systematically bribed. A huge scandal broke out. The head of the company, Fernand de Lossepsa, received a 5-year prison sentence.
Work on the construction of the canal was suspended until 1905. 3 years earlier, in 1902, a new agreement was concluded between Hay and Pounceforth, which annulled the previous agreement. The French company was afraid of losing all its investments if the canal was built through and sold to the United States all rights and its property in Panama for $40 million. Thus, the United States actually received a monopoly on the construction of the canal.
On November 3, 1903, Panama announced its secession from Colombia and declared its independence. In the same year, an agreement was signed between the United States and Panama, according to which all rights to use the future canal were transferred to the States for an “indefinite period”; in return, the Americans transferred to Panama those located in the canal zone (Perico, Naos, Culebra, Flamenco)
In 1905, an expert council appointed by President Roosevelt recommended building a lockless canal, but Congress, taking into account the mistakes of French construction, adopted a project with locks. The work on building the canal included many elements. It was necessary not only to lay the waterway itself, but also to build ports at both ends, as well as build breakwaters, dams, locks, etc. Much of the road between Colon and Panama City also had to be rebuilt.
At first, the work was carried out under the direction of civil engineers, but from 1907 the construction was taken over by the War Ministry. The French, who began construction, excavated 23 million cubic meters of earth along the canal route; North Americans still had 208 million left to take out.
Construction, with interruptions, lasted almost 40 years. The first ship passed through the Isthmus of Panama on August 15, 1914, but the discovery went unnoticed by the whole world as the First World War. IN full force The canal began operating after the official opening on June 12, 1920. According to government sources, the construction of the canal cost $380 million.
In 1935, the volume was increased by the construction of the Madden Dam in the upper reaches of Chagres, which led to the appearance of the lake.
Over the years, Panama continued to lobby the United States to repeal certain provisions of the treaty. In the end, the States relented. The US administration ceased to manage the Panama Canal, this happened on December 31, 1999, management passed to the Panamanian administration Autoridad del Canal de Panama (ACP).
Features of the Panama Canal
The length of the canal is 82.4 kilometers. Contrary to the general impression, it does not go in a straight line from east to west, but bends. This is due to the geography of the Isthmus of Panama. The canal heads southeast from Colon to , ending near Panama City on the Pacific Ocean.
From the huge breakwaters in Limon Bay, ships go to three Gatun locks, where they are raised to a height of 26 meters to the artificial Lake Gatun. Behind this lake, on a canal 150 meters wide, there are other locks. There, ships descend first 9 and then 16.5 meters to sea level and enter the Pacific port, protected by giant breakwaters.
The length of the Panama Canal is 81.6 km, including 65.2 km on land and 16.4 km along the bottom of the Panama and Limon bays.
All gateways are double-sided. They are 305 meters high and 34 meters wide, and they are designed so that ships coming from opposite directions can sail past each other. The thickness of the huge steel gates of these gateways is 2.1 meters, and the height is up to 25 meters. Small diesel engines, moving along the walls, slowly guide the ship through the lock. Typically six such machines are required per vessel.
The transit time for ships through the Panama Canal is 7-8 hours, the minimum is 4 hours. The average throughput is 36 vessels, the maximum is 48 vessels per day.
Panama Canal now
The channel is constantly being improved. To achieve this, the Autoridad del Canal de Panama (ACP) currently employs more than 9,000 workers.
There is an investment program that provides for more than a billion dollars of investment for the reconstruction and renewal of the canal. It is planned to purchase additional locomotives for towing ships through the locks, as well as to replace the old lock gates with more modern ones, with a built-in system for monitoring the condition of the gates.
In 2004, work was completed to expand the Panama Canal. The narrowest section at 13 km, called the Gaillard Cut, has increased by approximately 40 meters. Now two ships can pass through this place at the same time. As a result, channel capacity is expected to increase by 20%. Soon it is planned to build three new dams for new lakes, thanks to which the amount of water in the canal will increase, and also new source drinking water and hydroelectric energy for the country.
95 years ago (1914) the Panama Canal was opened.
By 1882 it was actually done preparatory work for the construction of an open, non-sluice-type canal. But Lesseps' company went bankrupt and receivership was appointed in 1889.
In 1894, a new French company for the construction of the Panama Canal was formed, which began working on the construction of a lock canal, and in 1904 the company was sold to the US government for $40 million. In 1903, the Republic of Panama became independent from Colombia and in 1904 the United States agreed with the government of Panama on a perpetual lease of the canal zone, which constitutes a strip of 16 km wide, for an amount of 10 million dollars and an annual fee of 250 thousand dollars.
This amount subsequently increased several times, reaching $110 million in 1998.
Construction of the Panama Canal lasted 11 years. The cost of its construction was $220 million. During the construction of the canal, unique for that time technical solutions. The canal was built as a six-stage lock passage through the mountainous Isthmus of Panama and ran in a northwest to southeast direction from the Atlantic port of Cristobal and the city of Colon to the port of Balboai in Panama on the Pacific coast.
The height of the lock rise is 26 meters, the length of the canal is 80 km, including the artificial channel along with the locks - 42 km. The length of the lock chambers is 305 meters, width - 33.5 meters, which allows the canal to pass approximately 85% of the world's merchant fleet vessels currently in operation (up to 290 meters long, up to 32.5 m wide and draft up to 12 meters).
The first ship passed through the Panama Canal August 15, 1914, but the official opening took place only June 12, 1920, after which the canal actually came into operation.
The Panama Canal eliminated the need for ships to navigate the Strait of Magellan or around Cape Horn and changed the directions of a number of important shipping routes. It is of greatest importance for connections between the east and west coasts of the USA and Canada, the distance between which has decreased by 2.5-3 times, between the east coasts of the USA and the Far East, as well as between Latin American countries.
In the 20s XX century The Panamanian government raised the issue of transferring the canal under the jurisdiction of Panama. However, a mutually acceptable agreement was reached only in 1977. On September 7, 1977, US President Jimmy Carter and Panamanian President Omar Torrijos signed the treaties “On the Panama Canal” and “On the permanent neutrality of the Panama Canal and its management.” According to the agreement, it was provided that control over the canal, including issues of its management, security and defense, would be transferred to Panama gradually and would be completely transferred to it until December 31, 1999, the day the agreement expired.
On October 23, 1977, the treaties were approved at a national plebiscite in Panama, after which they were ratified by the Panamanian side. When the Panama Canal Neutrality Treaty (March 16, 1978) and the Canal Treaty (April 19, 1978) were ratified, reservations were made to reserve the right of military intervention for the United States to “keep the canal open for navigation.”
There were 14 American military bases in the Panama Canal Zone. The largest of them are the strategic aviation bases Albrook Field and Rio Hato, naval bases in Balboa, Colon and Coco Solo. A military school for training groups operated at Fort Gulick special purpose for Latin American countries.
The process of transferring the canal from the United States to Panama lasted almost 20 years, starting in 1980.
In January 1998, the territory known as Kerry Heights, where the headquarters of the US Southern Command was located, was transferred to the jurisdiction of Panama.On November 1, 1999, a ceremony was held to transfer the territories of the last US military bases in the Howard and Kobe Canal area to the Panamanian government. On December 14, 1999, an official ceremony took place to transfer the canal to the jurisdiction of Panama, but Panama gained real sovereignty over the canal only on December 31, 1999.
From the opening of the Panama Canal in 1914 to 2007, more than 922 thousand ships passed through it. On average, more than 14 thousand ships pass through the canal annually (38 per day). Their cargo turnover is measured in special units - “Panama Canal tons” (PCUMS). 1 PCUMS = 1 thousand cubic feet (28.3 cubic meters). Average cargo turnover is 203 million PCUMS.
The main cargo transported is grain, iron and steel, coal, petroleum products, fertilizers, and cars.
The main user countries are the USA, China, Japan, Chile, South Korea, Peru, Canada, Ecuador, Colombia, Mexico.
The canal handles 4% of global trade shipping and 16% of U.S. trade shipping. 68% of ships travel through the canal to or from US ports.
The channel is managed by the Panama government agency Autoridad del Canal de Panama (ACP).
According to the canal administration, revenues from the operation of the Panama Canal in fiscal year 2008 amounted to more than $2 billion, compared with 2007, profits increased by 17%.
Tariffs for passage through the Panama Canal are relatively low: $2.57 per net ton for a loaded vessel and $0.86 for an empty one.
The average cost of passage of one vessel is 54 thousand dollars.
Currently, the Panama Canal is capable of passing ships with a displacement of no more than 65 thousand tons and a draft of no more than 12 meters. This makes it impossible to use it by oil supertankers (their displacement reaches 650 thousand tons, draft - 26 meters), as well as by US Navy aircraft carriers of the Nimitz class.
In 2007, the Panamanian government announced a tender to modernize the canal.
It was won by a consortium of companies led by the Spanish construction company Sacyr Vallehermoso. The consortium also includes the Italian firm Impregilo, the Belgian Juan de Nul and the Panamanian Constructora Urbana.
Work to modernize the Panama Canal should be completed in 2014 - by the 100th anniversary of its opening.
The $3.118 billion project involves dredging and constructing a third cascade of wider locks.
It is expected that as a result of the modernization of the canal, its maximum capacity will increase to 18.8 thousand ships per year, cargo turnover - to 600 million PCUMS. By 2015, Panama's budget will receive $1.5 billion in revenue from the canal annually, and by 2025 . revenues will increase to $4.3 billion.
