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What is an information system? What is an information system? School information system. Unified information system

Information system is a set of software and hardware, as well as organizational support, which together provide information support to a person in various areas of his activity. I would especially like to draw the reader’s attention to the fact that an information system is not only a software product and computers with network equipment, but also a list of regulations and standards for operating the system, personnel involved in the management and administration processes of all its components and the data that this the system controls.

The management of any company implementing a new information system must first determine for itself who will be the user, administrator and data provider, as well as how the operation of the system will fit into the existing staffing schedule, be consistent with current regulatory documents and, finally, comply with current goals and mission of the company as a whole. Only after answering these questions can you think about what hardware will be needed and how much the software will cost.

So, most often we encounter automated information systems – systems that require people to participate in self-management processes. Systems that do not require human control are called automatic information systems. This does not mean that automatic systems do not have users, but only that their operation is not controlled by user actions. Among the most accessible examples of information systems that operate almost automatically are Internet search engines, such as Google or Yandex, which independently search for new and sort existing information, and their users are just sources of queries and consumers of answers. All information systems can be roughly divided into information retrieval systems, which include the Internet services mentioned above, and data processing systems, where users already have the opportunity to correct information controlled by the system.

By purpose, data processing information systems can be classified approximately as follows:

    Automated control systems(ACS) are used to automate the management of business processes in an enterprise (ACS) from finance, accounting and document management to specific technological processes in production or in the maintenance of production assets. The database of systems that automate technological processes (APCS), as a rule, contains passport data of equipment, data on events associated with its operation (inspections, repairs), measurement results, tests and other information that affects the management of this entire production facility . Automated control systems consist of a large number of different subsystems, including those that will be described below. All these subsystems are data sources for the automated control system. The information accumulated in an automated enterprise management system should also be used to analyze the efficiency of the enterprise and plan its development in the future.

    Geographic Information Systems(GIS) make it possible to store information about target objects in the form of spatial data and present this information in the form of an electronic map. GIS allow you to work with objects in terms of spatial queries - select data in accordance with specified spatial criteria (belonging to a given territory, distance from a specified point, etc., etc.).

    Dispatch control systems are designed to provide the relevant company personnel (dispatchers) with the ability to monitor and remotely manage the enterprise's production assets, as well as allow them to manage emergency situations, including monitoring the development of accidents and other unforeseen events.

    Computer-aided design systems(CAD, CAD) is the main tool of personnel involved in engineering design. Such systems allow you to create drawings of design objects in electronic form in both two and three-dimensional projections and do this in accordance with accepted standards and with the required accuracy.

The above list is far from complete, but it is worth noting that modern information systems are increasingly difficult to attribute to any one specific type due to their complexity and multifunctionality.

It makes sense to present here another way of classifying information systems - dividing them into real-time systems and systems operating in a normal mode, not tied to timing. In real-time systems, the main requirement is to perform key operations within the time period allotted by regulations. If an operation cannot be completed within the specified period, and the time-extended process of its complete and correct processing may negatively affect the processing of other similar actions, then such an operation is stopped or postponed. The operation of a real-time system, to a first approximation, can be represented as software processing of external events that can occur and last in parallel to each other and be associated with different objects controlled (observed) by the system. Most supervisory systems are required to operate in real time, and one example of such systems is SCADA (Supervisory Control And Data Acquisition). SCADA system is a software tool for monitoring a technological process in real time, and this control is carried out through monitoring and remote control of a dispatchable object, which can be, in particular, production equipment.

There are about 100 state information systems in the Russian Federation, they are divided into federal and regional. An organization operating any of these systems is required to comply with security requirements for the data processed within it. Depending on the classification, different information systems are subject to different requirements, for non-compliance with which sanctions are applied - from a fine to more serious measures.

The operation of all information systems in the Russian Federation is determined by the Federal Law of July 27, 2006 No. 149-FZ (as amended on July 21, 2014) “On information, information technologies and information protection” (July 27, 2006). Article 14 of this law provides a detailed description of GIS. Operators of state information systems in which restricted access information is processed (not containing information constituting a state secret) are subject to the requirements set out in Order No. 17 of the FSTEC of Russia dated February 11, 2013 “On approval of requirements for the protection of information that does not constitute a state secret contained in state information systems."

Let us recall that an operator is a citizen or legal entity engaged in the operation of an information system, including the processing of information contained in its databases.

If an organization is connected to a state information system, then FSTEC Order No. 17 obliges the system to be certified, and only certified information security tools (with valid FSTEC or FSB certificates) must be used to protect information.

There are often cases when the operator of an information system mistakenly classifies it as a GIS, when it is not one. As a result, excessive security measures are applied to the system. For example, if by mistake the operator of a personal data information system classified it as state-owned, he will have to comply with more stringent requirements for the security of the information being processed than required by law. Meanwhile, the requirements for the protection of personal data information systems, which are regulated by FSTEC Order No. 21, are less stringent and do not require certification of the system.

In practice, it is not always clear whether the system to which you need to connect is state-owned, and, therefore, what measures to build information security need to be taken. Nevertheless, the plan of inspections by regulatory authorities is growing, and fines are systematically increasing.

How to distinguish GIS from non-GIS

A state information system is created when it is necessary to ensure:

  • implementation of powers of government agencies;
  • information exchange between government agencies;
  • achieving other goals established by federal laws.

You can understand that the information system belongs to the state using the following algorithm:

  1. Find out if there is a legislative act requiring the creation of an information system.
  2. Check the availability of the system in the Register of Federal State Information Systems. Similar registers exist at the level of the constituent entities of the Federation.
  3. Pay attention to the purpose of the system. An indirect sign of classifying a system as a GIS will be a description of the powers that it implements. For example, each administration of the Republic of Bashkortostan has its own charter, which also describes the powers of local government bodies. The IS “Registration of citizens in need of residential premises on the territory of the Republic of Bashkortostan” was created to implement such powers of administrations as “adopting and organizing the implementation of plans and programs for the comprehensive socio-economic development of the municipal region”, and is a GIS.

If the system involves the exchange of information between government agencies, it is also highly likely to be state-owned (for example, an interdepartmental electronic document management system).

This is GIS. What to do?

FSTEC Order 17 prescribes the following measures to protect information for GIS operators:

  • developing requirements for the protection of information contained in the information system;
  • development of an information security system for an information system;
  • implementation of the information security system of the information system;
  • certification of the information system according to information security requirements (hereinafter referred to as ISPD certification) and its commissioning;
  • ensuring the protection of information during the operation of a certified information system;
  • ensuring the protection of information during decommissioning of a certified information system or after a decision is made to terminate information processing.

Organizations that are connected to government information systems must perform the following actions:

1. Classify IP and identify security threats.

IP classification is carried out in accordance with clause 14.2 17 of the FSTEC order.

Threats to information security are determined based on the results

  • assessing the capabilities of violators;
  • analysis of possible information system vulnerabilities;
  • analysis (or modeling) of possible ways to implement threats to information security;
  • assessing the consequences of violating information security properties (confidentiality, integrity, availability).

2. Generate requirements for the information processing system.

System requirements must contain:

  • the purpose and objectives of ensuring information security in the information system;
  • information system security class;
  • a list of regulatory legal acts, methodological documents and national standards that the information system must comply with;
  • list of information system protection objects;
  • requirements for measures and means of information protection used in the information system.

3. Develop an information security system for the information system.

To do this you need to:

  • designing an information security system for an information system;
  • development of operational documentation for the information security system of the information system;
  • prototyping and testing of the information security system of the information system.

4. Implement the information security system of the information system, namely:

  • installation and configuration of information security tools in the information system;
  • development of documents defining the rules and procedures implemented by the operator to ensure the protection of information in the information system during its operation (hereinafter referred to as organizational and administrative documents on information protection);
  • implementation of organizational measures to protect information;
  • preliminary tests of the information security system of the information system;
  • trial operation of the information security system;
  • checking the constructed information security system for vulnerability;
  • acceptance tests of the information security system of the information system.

5. Certify ISPDn:

  • conduct certification tests;
  • receive a certificate of conformity.

There is a widespread belief that in order to pass an inspection by regulatory authorities, it is enough to have organizational and administrative documents, so GIS operators often neglect to implement security measures. Indeed, Roskomnadzor pays close attention to documents and the implementation of organizational and administrative measures to protect personal data in the organization. However, if questions arise, specialists from FSTEC and the FSB may be involved in the inspection. At the same time, FSTEC looks very carefully at the composition of technical information protection and checks the correctness of the threat model, and the FSB checks the implementation of requirements regarding the use of cryptographic information protection means.

Oleg Necheukhin, information systems protection expert, Kontur-Security

It is worth considering this issue from different points of view, which will create an overall picture. Experts say that it is an interconnected set of tools, personnel and methods used to store, process and provide information necessary to solve specific tasks.

Basic moments

When considering, it must be said that it can have different scales and purposes. There are other features as well. Systems may differ in the extent to which they cover different areas of the company’s activities; they may be intended not only for maintaining warehouse or accounting records, but also for finance, production accounting and document control of the enterprise.

Regardless of their purpose, they all have a whole set of properties that have become common to them. The use of computers is essential for processing information in any modern system. They are tools and technical base in combination with specialized programs installed on them. If we talk about what an information system is, then it should be noted that its basis can be called tools developed for storing and accessing data. They are intended for use by the end user, who should not be a computer specialist. This includes client applications designed to provide an intuitive interface.

Types of ICs

Such systems are divided into documentary and factual. The first ones are focused on solving problems related to production management, accounting and other similar ones. The latter are focused on finding unambiguous answers to queries, as well as solving a given problem in only one way. These can be heterogeneous reference and information systems, search systems, and also those engaged in operational data processing. Documentary information systems are designed to solve problems that do not provide unambiguous answers to questions. Here we can give an example that has become increasingly popular in enterprises recently. Mixed type of IP is allowed.

Scale

Speaking about what an information system is, it is worth touching on such an important issue as its scale. It is customary to distinguish between individual or desktop IS, network IS, which includes several users, as well as the largest – enterprise-scale. It is quite difficult to imagine a modern company without using such a system. It doesn’t matter in what area the enterprise’s activities are concentrated, its size is not so important, its IP in any case serves as the core that ensures effective management of production, trade or timely, high-quality provision of services. With its help, the solution of management problems is simplified, it is possible to free some employees from solving various routine matters, the likelihood of errors is reduced, the number of paper documents is reduced, and there are also opportunities for significant cost reduction. For this reason, any modern enterprise is distinguished by the fact that everything related to the information system and ensuring its smooth functioning has become the subject of special control by management personnel.

City cadastral information system

IS urban cadastre is one of the ways to ensure information transformation of cadastral data on objects of different types of property in a populated area. It is a complex of technical means and software, material and labor resources, which are aimed at creating information about real estate objects and its full presentation in the form of tangible documents.

The city information system plays a very important role in providing data, since it serves as an effective means of creating an information space that is used to manage social, business, economic and other activities in it. In the current socio-economic conditions, the creation of such a space becomes possible only on the basis of absolute automation of processes such as the collection, processing, storage and updating of cadastral data on real estate. In addition, the provision of information systems provides access to all specified data, operational exchange between government and commercial structures of various kinds, services and organizations of the city.

The need for such a structure

At the moment, certain state, commercial and municipal organizations (land markets, mortgage banks, real estate privatization committees, tax inspectorates, insurance companies and others) are almost unable to fulfill their direct responsibilities without organizing the timely exchange of cadastral information that is reliable during this period of time. That is why the development of an information system of this kind makes it possible to solve not only the problems of protecting property rights and taxation, but also other issues.

Non-cadastral tasks

Prompt, complete and high-quality information provision of bodies managing the city, commercial, economic and other structures and individual citizens with complete and reliable information about the physical condition of real estate of various forms of ownership and other elements of the urban environment;

Analysis of the use of infrastructure, natural, labor, material, technical means and resources of the city, their distribution by type of ownership, etc.;

Work on the preparation of urban planning and architectural projects, design of utility networks and other things.

Difficulties at work

The design of information systems of this kind has become necessary due to the fact that until recently there were no analogues on the domestic market capable of solving such complex problems. There are no similar solutions abroad either, but in recent years the intensification of work in this area is simply amazing. The first Russian development in this area was the AIS GK, created by the Novosibirsk branch of the Russian Scientific Research Center "Earth". It is aimed at providing a variety of structures with reliable cadastral information: administration, privatization committee, insurance bureaus, tax inspectorates, institutions and enterprises, mortgage, land and investment banks, as well as individuals who own real estate.

Features of data accounting

It is important to understand that certain services and organizations of the city are capable of being not only passive consumers of cadastral information, but also shaping it, having a huge impact on the formation of the urban information space. It is for this reason that the development of AIS GC was carried out taking into account the possibility of using software products of similar users, and also provided for the safety of their fleet of technical measuring instruments. The unified information system was developed taking into account all these features.

Construction principles used

Modularity in terms of construction, which makes it possible to ensure the normal functioning of each individual element, and therefore of their entirety as a whole;

They have a very flexible software architecture, which allows you to include new subscribers in the network and exclude them from it without reducing the operability, reliability and performance of the entire structure, and also does not require any reconfiguration;

Data is fully protected from loss due to failures or unauthorized access to the information system;

The classification and coding of data on elements of the urban environment is unified;

Information is entered in a unified format, which is made possible through the use of system configuration tools provided by the operating system and network DBMS;

The results of geodetic changes are processed in a fully automated mode, regardless of what methods were used to collect them;

The information in the database is presented in topological integrity, it is possible to edit all types of cadastral data;

Operational control of the reliability and correctness of data in all operations with them.

Such a unified information system is capable of solving not only cadastral problems directly, but also many others associated with the development of plans for the development of territories and their redevelopment, environmental protection, rational placement of housing facilities, modeling of transport flows, property management and much more. In addition, such a system easily incorporates user devices, tools and computers.

Alternative options

The school information system represents a completely new approach to education. With the help of important elements, timely provision of data is achieved. For example, an element such as an electronic diary is used to post information about grades and homework, allowing teachers to quickly interact with students. This includes a student portfolio that demonstrates their activities in and outside of school. The school information system supports the use of personal privacy settings through a personal account. Parents can quickly receive reliable information not only about academic performance, but also about homework.

So, all this allows you to understand what an information system is and how it helps in solving many important issues.


Introduction……………………………………………………………………………….2

1. Information system and its types……………………………………………...3

2. Composition of automated information systems……………………………9

3. Technological process of information processing…………………………….16

4. The role of information technology in the design, operation and modification of information systems………………………………………………………20

5. CASE technologies…………………………………………………………………...22

Conclusion………………………………………………………………………………………...28

List of references………………………………………………………………..29

Introduction

The 21st century, which marks the beginning of the third millennium, has challenged humanity in the form of pervasive international communications, the World Wide Web, the Internet, and the emergence of a virtual economy. And who today can say with complete confidence that, leaving the 21st century. will not bring humanity a more serious threat in the form of the emergence of “machine (i.e., electronic) intelligence” and a “human-machine” economy? XXI century provides us with an opportunity to look at the development of the economy since its inception, and also to take an intelligent look at the future of the economy and humanity.

Using communication means, you can, without leaving your home, manage production lines or the financial and commercial activities of an enterprise, maintain accounting records, study remotely at an educational institution, read books in the library, buy goods, make banking and stock exchange transactions. and other financial transactions, etc. Appearance at the end of the 20th century. information technology has led to the emergence of the most profitable business - the interactive business.

We can say with complete confidence that in the middle of the 21st century. The leaders of the world economy and international trade will be those countries that will have high technology and knowledge-intensive industries. This means that the export of Russian oil, minerals, trade in weapons and heavy engineering products by Russian companies will take one of the last places in international trade and will no longer generate the income that Russia had at the end of the 20th century. .

In a market economy, the approach to management is radically changing, from functional to business-oriented, and the role of information technology is radically changing. A focus on business process-based management provides a competitive advantage for an organization in highly competitive environments, and business process-based management cannot be effectively implemented without the use of information technologies and systems.

1. Information system and its types.

Information system is an interconnected set of means, methods and personnel used to store, process and issue information in the interests of achieving a set goal. The modern understanding of an information system involves the use of a computer as the main technical means of processing information. It is necessary to understand the difference between computers and information systems. Computers equipped with specialized software are the technical basis and tool for information systems. An information system is unthinkable without personnel interacting with computers and telecommunications.

In the legal and regulatory sense, an information system is defined as “an organizationally ordered set of documents (an array of documents) and information technologies, including the use of computer technology and communications that implement information processes” [RF Law “On Information, Informatization and Information Protection” dated February 20, 1995, No. 24-FZ].

The processes that ensure the operation of an information system for any purpose can be conventionally represented as consisting of the following blocks:
entering information from external or internal sources;
processing input information and presenting it in a convenient form;
outputting information for presentation to consumers or transfer to another system;
Feedback is information processed by people of a given organization to correct input information.

In general, information systems are defined by the following properties:
1) any information system can be analyzed, built and managed on the basis of general principles for building systems;
2) the information system is dynamic and developing;
3) when building an information system, it is necessary to use a systematic approach;

4) the output of the information system is the information on the basis of which decisions are made;

5) the information system should be perceived as a human-machine information processing system.

The introduction of information systems can contribute to:
obtaining more rational options for solving management problems through the introduction of mathematical methods; freeing workers from routine work due to its automation; ensuring the reliability of information; improving the structure of information flows (including the document flow system); providing consumers with unique services; reducing costs for the production of products and services (including information).

The type of information system depends on whose interests it serves and at what level of management. Based on the nature of presentation and logical organization of stored information, information systems are divided into factual, documentary and geoinformation systems.

Factual Information Systems accumulate and store data in the form of multiple instances of one or several types of structural elements (information objects). Each of these instances or some combination of them reflects information on a fact or event separately from all other information and facts.

In documentary (documented) information systems A single element of information is a document that is not divided into smaller elements, and information during input (input document), as a rule, is not structured, or is structured in a limited form. For the entered document, some formalized positions can be set (date of production, artist, subject).

In geographic information systems the data is organized in the form of separate information objects (with a certain set of details) linked to a common electronic topographical basis (electronic map). Geographic information systems are used for information support in those subject areas in which the structure of information objects and processes has a spatial-geographical component (transport routes, utilities).

In Fig. 1.1 presents the classification of information systems according to the characteristics of their functional subsystems.

Rice. 1.1. Classification of information systems according to functional criteria.

In the economic practice of industrial and commercial facilities, the typical types of activities that determine the functional attribute of the classification of information systems are production, marketing, financial, and personnel activities.

Classification of information systems by management levels
Highlight:
operational (operational) level information systems – accounting, bank deposits, order processing, ticket registration, salary payments; information system for specialists – office automation, knowledge processing (including expert systems);
tactical level information systems (middle management) – monitoring, administration, control, decision making;
strategic information systems – formulation of goals, strategic planning.

Operational (operational) level information systems
The operational level information system supports executive specialists by processing data on transactions and events (invoices, invoices, salaries, loans, flow of raw materials). The purpose of the information system at this level is to respond to queries about the current status and monitor the flow of transactions in the company, which corresponds to operational management. To cope with this, the information system must be easily accessible, continuously available and provide accurate information. The operational level information system is the link between the company and the external environment.

Information systems of specialists. Information systems at this level help specialists working with data, increase the productivity and productivity of engineers and designers. The task of such information systems is to integrate new information into the organization and assist in the processing of paper documents.
Office automation information systems Due to their simplicity and versatility, they are actively used by employees of any organizational level. They are most often used by semi-skilled workers: accountants, secretaries, and clerks. The main goal is data processing, increasing the efficiency of their work and simplifying clerical work.

These systems perform the following functions: word processing on computers using various word processors; production of high-quality printed products; archiving of documents;
electronic calendars and notebooks for maintaining business information; email and audiomail; video and teleconferences.

Information systems for knowledge processing, including expert systems, absorb the knowledge necessary for engineers, lawyers, scientists when developing or creating a new product. Their job is to create new information and new knowledge.

Tactical level information systems (middle level)
The main functions of these information systems are: comparison of current indicators with past indicators; drawing up periodic reports for a certain time (rather than issuing reports on current events, as at the operational level); providing access to archival information, etc.

Decision support systems serve semi-structured tasks, the results of which are difficult to predict in advance (they have a more powerful analytical apparatus with several models). Information is obtained from management and operational information systems. Characteristics of decision support systems:
provide solutions to problems whose development is difficult to predict;
equipped with sophisticated modeling and analysis tools;
allow you to easily change the formulation of the problems being solved and the input data;
are flexible and easily adapt to changing conditions several times a day; have technology that is as user-oriented as possible.

Strategic information systems.Strategic Information System- a computer information system that provides decision support for the implementation of long-term strategic development goals of the organization. There are situations when the new quality of information systems forced to change not only the structure, but also the profile of companies, promoting their prosperity. However, in this case, an undesirable psychological situation may arise associated with the automation of certain functions and types of work, since this may put some of the workers in a difficult situation.

The modern understanding of an information system involves the use of a computer as the main technical means of information processing. Computers equipped with specialized software are the technical basis and tool of the information system.

Information system is a software and hardware complex, the functioning of which consists of securely storing information in computer memory, performing domain-specific information transformations and calculations, and providing the user with a convenient and easy-to-learn interface.

Information systems exist in all major spheres of modern society: government bodies, the financial and credit sector, information services for business activities, the production sector, science, education, etc.

When creating or classifying information systems, problems arise related to the formal - mathematical and algorithmic description of the problems being solved. The quality of the system creation determines the efficiency of the entire system, as well as the level of automation, determined by the degree of human participation in making decisions based on the information received.

The more accurate the mathematical description of a problem, the higher the capabilities of computer data processing and the less the degree of human participation in the process of solving it. This determines the degree of automation of the task.

Let's consider several types of information systems:

Structured system- a task where all its elements and the relationships between them are known.

In a structured problem, it is possible to express its content in the form of a mathematical model that has an exact solution algorithm. Such tasks usually have to be solved many times, and they are routine in nature. The purpose of using an information system to solve structured problems is to completely automate their solution, i.e. reducing the human role to zero.

Example. It is necessary to implement the payroll calculation task in the information system.

This is a structured problem where the solution algorithm is completely known. The routine nature of this task is determined by the fact that the calculations of all charges and deductions are very simple, but their volume is very large, since they must be repeated many times monthly for all categories of workers.

Unstructured system- a task in which it is impossible to identify elements and establish connections between them.

Solving unstructured problems due to the impossibility of creating a mathematical description and developing an algorithm is associated with great difficulties. The possibilities of using the information system here are small. The decision in such cases is made by a person for heuristic reasons based on his experience and, possibly, indirect information from various sources.

Example. Try to formalize relationships in your student group. You probably won't be able to do this. This is due to the fact that this task requires psychological and social factors, which are very difficult to describe algorithmically.

Expert system is a program that behaves like an expert in some, usually narrow, application field. Typical applications of expert systems include tasks such as medical diagnostics and localization of equipment faults.

An example of an expert system in electronics.

ACE. The expert system identifies faults in the telephone network and makes recommendations on necessary repairs and restoration measures. The system operates without user intervention, analyzing status reports received daily by CRAS, a program that monitors the progress of cable network repairs. ACE detects faulty telephone cables and then decides whether they require preventative maintenance and selects which type of repair work is most likely to be effective. ACE then stores its recommendations in a special database that the user has access to. ACE is implemented in OPS4 and FRANZ LISP languages ​​and runs on AT&T 3B-2 series microprocessors located in cable monitoring substations. It was developed by Bell Laboratories. ACE has undergone trial operation and has been brought to the level of a commercial expert system.

Other classifications of information systems:

Depending on the degree of automation of information processes in the company's management system, information systems are defined as manual, automatic, automated.

Manual ICs are characterized by the lack of modern technical means of information processing and all operations are performed by humans. For example, about the activities of a manager in a company where there are no computers, we can say that he works with a manual IS.

Automatic ICs perform all information processing operations without human participation.

Automated ICs involve the participation of both humans and technical means in the process of information processing, with the main role assigned to the computer. In the modern interpretation, the term “information system” necessarily includes the concept of an automated system.

Automated information systems, given their widespread use in organizing management processes, have various modifications and can be classified, for example, by the nature of the use of information and the scope of application.

Classification of IP by field of application.

Organizational management information systems are designed to automate the functions of various structural units.

The main functions of such systems are: operational control and regulation, long-term and operational planning, accounting, sales and supply management and other economic and organizational tasks.

Process Control IC(TP) serve to automate the functions of production personnel. They are widely used in organizations to support the technological process in the metallurgical and mechanical engineering industries.

Computer-aided design IC(CAD) are designed to automate the functions of design engineers, designers, architects, designers when creating new equipment or technology. The main functions of such systems are: engineering calculations, creation of graphic documentation (drawings, diagrams, plans), creation of design documentation, modeling of designed objects.

Integrated (corporate) IS are used to automate all functions of the company and cover the entire cycle of work from design to product sales. Creating such systems is very difficult, since it requires a systematic approach from the standpoint of the main goal, for example, making a profit, conquering the sales market, etc. This approach can lead to significant changes in the very structure of the company, which not every manager can decide to do.