Holding the Washington Conference. The Washington Conference and the most important treaties adopted at it. Paris Peace Conference and its decisions

International conference on the limitation of naval weapons and problems of the Far East and the Pacific Ocean. Held from November 12, 1921 to February 6, 1922 at Constitution Hall in Washington. The conference was attended by the USA, Great Britain, China, Japan, France, Italy, Belgium, the Netherlands and Portugal, as well as the five British dominions, although the main issues were resolved by the three strongest naval powers of the USA - the British Empire - Japan. Soviet Russia did not receive an invitation to Washington, as a result of which it declared its non-recognition of any decisions of the conference.

The Washington Conference was convened at the initiative of the United States, which hoped to achieve a favorable solution to the issue of naval armaments and consolidate a new balance of forces in China and in the Pacific Ocean. The conference was also directed against the national liberation movement of the peoples of colonial and dependent countries. The Soviet government, which did not receive an invitation to the conference, protested on July 19 and November 2, 1921 against its exclusion from participation in the conference, and on December 8, 1921 sent a protest against the discussion of the issue of the Chinese Eastern Railway at the conference. In December 1921, a delegation from the Far Eastern Republic arrived in Washington, but was not allowed to attend the conference.

At the time of the conference, the British government had a debt to the USA - $4.5 billion, France - $3.5 billion, Italy - $1.8 billion.

Main agreements[ | code]

Four Power Treaty of December 13, 1921, which became known as the “Quadruple Pacific Treaty” or “Far Eastern Entente”. It included countries such as the USA, Great Britain, France and Japan. The treaty was intended to unite the forces of the Allies against the national liberation movement of the peoples of the Pacific Ocean and the Far East. Under this treaty, the signatories pledged to mutually respect the rights to islands and island possessions in the Pacific Ocean. The treaty also provided (under pressure from American diplomacy) for the liquidation of the Anglo-Japanese alliance of 1902, which at that time was directed against US plans in the Far East and the Pacific. Some British dominions (primarily Canada), who feared the strengthening of Japan at the expense of China and other countries of the Far East, also spoke out against the Anglo-Japanese alliance. Thus, the agreement legally consolidated the status quo and temporary balance of the four powers in the Pacific region.

Five Power Treaty, better known as the Washington Naval Agreement of 1922. Treaty between the USA, Great Britain, Japan, France and Italy on the limitation of naval armaments. The agreement established the ratio of the tonnage of battleships and aircraft carriers in the following proportion: 5: 5: 3: 1.75: 1.75 (USA, England, Japan, France, Italy, respectively). The US proposal to ban the construction of battleships with a displacement of over 35 thousand tons was also adopted. The agreement was concluded for a period until December 31, 1936.

Nine Power Treaty dated February 6, 1922, signed by all conference participants. The agreement concerned ensuring guarantees of the territorial integrity of China, respect for its sovereignty, and also proclaimed the principle of “open doors and equal opportunities” in relation to China in the field of trade and business activities and obliged not to resort to using the internal situation in China in order to obtain special rights and privileges , which may harm the rights and interests of other states parties to the treaty. China was viewed by the parties to the treaty as a common target of exploitation. This treaty was aimed against Japan's claims to monopoly dominance in China. Even earlier, on February 5, 1922, Japan was forced to sign the so-called Washington Agreement- Sino-Japanese agreement on the evacuation of Japanese troops from the Chinese province of Shandong, as well as on the return to China of the Qingdao-Jinan railway and the territory of Jiao-Zhou. The head of the Japanese delegation pledged that the Japanese government would not demand that the Chinese government fulfill the fifth group of Japan’s “twenty-one demands” regarding the appointment of Japanese advisers to the Chinese government, etc. However, Japan rejected China’s demand for the withdrawal of Japanese troops from Southern Manchuria. Simultaneously with the Nine Power Treaty, on February 6, 1922, the Treaty on the Chinese Customs Tariff was signed, which established the customs inequalities of China.

Washington Conference in Works of Art[ | code]

Jaroslav Hasek gave a parody of the work of the conference in a humorous story on disarmament.

Notes[ | code]

Tooze, J. Adam. The deluge: the Great War and the remaking of global order, 1916-1931
“Now that restrictions have been placed on the increase in the tonnage of navies, a new competition begins, it will be a competition for quality” (Lloyd George).

Literature[ | code]

Golovin, N.; Bubnov, A. The Pacific problem in the 20th century. Chapter XII: Washington Conference // Alexey Vandam, Nikolai Golovin, Alexander Bubnov. Unheard Prophets of Future Wars = The Problem of the Pacific in the Twentieth Century (1922). - M.: AST, Astrel, 2004. - 368 p. - (Great Controversies). - 5100 copies. - ISBN 5-17-025223-4.

Links[ | code]

FOUR POWERS TREATY 1921

signed on XII 13 at the Washington Conference (see) between the USA, Great Britain, France and Japan; formalized the dissolution of the Anglo-Japanese Alliance.

US diplomacy sought to undermine the Anglo-Japanese alliance long before the convening of the conference in Washington. The accomplishment of this task was made easier for the United States by the fact that within the British Empire itself there was no unity on the issue of extending the alliance with Japan. At the Imperial Conference of 1921, Canada opposed the union, while Australia and New Zealand, fearing Japanese aggression, spoke out in favor of maintaining allied relations with it. In order to put pressure on the British government, in April 1921, the editor of the New York Times, Ochs, was sent to London on an unofficial mission.

As a result of Ochs's negotiations with First Lord of the Admiralty Lee, the British government concluded that the renewal of the Anglo-Japanese alliance would cause a sharp deterioration in relations with the United States. Washington also used the Irish question to put pressure on England.

In connection with the upcoming discussion in the US Congress in the summer of 1921 on the issue of recognition of the Irish Republic, Secretary of State Hughes, in a conversation with the British Ambassador Geddes on 23.VI, stated that the decision of the Congress would depend on the nature of the relationship between England and Japan. British diplomacy decided to give in. Despite the fact that the issue of the Anglo-Japanese alliance was not included in the agenda of the Washington Conference, 1.

XII 1921 British delegate Balfour invited Japanese delegate Kato for negotiations. Subsequently, the United States, as well as France (involved at the initiative of the United States), took part in the negotiations. Negotiations were conducted in strict confidence, and the conference was presented with a completed draft agreement.

In Art. I and II Ch. d. d. the parties agreed to “respect in their relationships the right of each of them to their island possessions and island territories in the Pacific Ocean,” and also agreed on mutual consultation in the event that these rights are endangered by any -or another power.

Art. III determined the duration of the treaty at 10 years, with subsequent extension for an unlimited period, unless one of the parties declares its denunciation 12 months in advance. The most important article of the agreement is Art. IV, which provides that from the moment it enters into force the Anglo-Japanese Alliance ceases to operate. The declaration attached to the agreement states that the distribution of Art. Treaties I and II for mandated territories in the Pacific Ocean do not mean US recognition of the mandate system. Like other decisions taken at the Washington Conference, Ch.

Washington Conference (1921-1922)

d. not only did not take into account the interests of the great Pacific power - the Soviet Union, but was also directly directed against the Soviet state. The treaty assigned Japan its strategic position near Soviet territory.

Participants of the Washington Conference

The conference was attended by Belgium, Great Britain, Holland, Italy, China, Portugal, USA, France and Japan. The delegation of the Far Eastern Republic was not allowed to attend.

Reasons and goals of the conference

The states participating in the conference sought to consider the problems that arose in the Pacific and Far Eastern regions after the First World War and the Paris Conference.

The United States and China were dissatisfied with the strengthening of Japan, which managed to push the United States and Great Britain out of the Chinese market by imposing agreements on economic privileges on China and securing rights to the Shandong Peninsula (China’s sphere of influence) and Germany’s former colonies in the Pacific Ocean.

It was important for the United States to resolve the issue of naval armaments.

Results and decisions of the Washington Conference

Three agreements were signed: the “Four Powers Treaty”, the “Five Powers Treaty”, and the “Nine Powers Treaty”.

The Washington Conference established a temporary balance of power in the Pacific and Far Eastern regions. At the same time, its decisions reflected emerging contradictions, primarily between the United States and Japan.

Washington Conference 1921-1922

The decisions she made did not take into account the interests of Soviet Russia, whose representatives were not invited to the conference.

Attempts were made to “internationalize” the Chinese Eastern Railway (CER). But as a result of protests by Soviet diplomats, the Washington Conference decided that the CER “really is the property of the Russian government.”

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Versailles-Washington system

The treaties signed at the conference were an addition to the Versailles system.

Based on the entire set of treaties, the Versailles-Washington system emerged, which determined the conditions for the post-war peace settlement in Europe, Asia, Africa and the Pacific. It served as a source of temporary stabilization in the sphere of international relations. However, the Versailles-Washington system did not provide long-term guarantees of world order.

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Results of the Washington Conference agreement
The Washington Peace Conference took place
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Versailles-Washington Conference

Key pages Soviet Military Encyclopedia: A, B, C, D, D, E, F, Z, I, J, K, L, M, N, O, P, R, S, T, U, F, X, C, H, W , Shch, E, Yu, I

Washington Conference 1921-1922

on the limitation of naval weapons and the problems of the Far East and the Pacific Ocean.

Took place from November 12, 1921 to February 6, 1922 in Washington. It was a stage on the path to creating the so-called. Versailles-Washington system, i.e. territorial redistribution of the world and spheres of influence between the main imperialist powers after the 1st World War.

It was convened at the initiative of the United States. In progress Washington Conference The USA, Great Britain, China, Japan, France, Italy, Belgium, the Netherlands and Portugal took part. Delegates from the British Dominions and a delegate speaking on behalf of India were also present.

The conference was led by the Big Five - the USA, Great Britain, France, Italy and Japan, but many issues were resolved by the Big Three - the USA, Great Britain and Japan. The following main documents were developed and signed at the conference:
Four Power Treaty(USA, UK, France and Japan), under which the participants pledged to mutually respect the rights to islands and island possessions in the Pacific Ocean.

Signed 13 Dec. 1921. Provided for the joint protection of the territorial “rights” of the contracting parties in the Pacific Ocean, and pursued the goal of uniting their efforts against the national liberation movement of peoples in the Pacific Ocean and the Far East. Terminated the Anglo-Japanese Alliance of 1902, which determined the balance of power in World War I in the Far East and the Pacific.
Five Power Treaty(USA, UK, Japan, France and Italy) on the limitation of naval armaments, which established a ratio of naval forces that was favorable, mainly for the USA.

Washington Conference of 1921, its decisions

The agreement established a certain proportion of the maximum tonnage of the battle fleet: USA - 5, Great Britain - 5, Japan - 3, France - 1.75, Italy - 1.75. The total tonnage of battleships should not exceed: for the USA and Great Britain 525 thousand tons, for Japan 315 thousand tons, for Italy and France 175 thousand tons. The tonnage of aircraft carriers was also established: 135 thousand tons for the USA and Great Britain, 81 thousand tons for Japan and 60 thousand tons each for Italy and France.

The agreement provided for the maximum displacement standards for ships and the maximum caliber of artillery: battleship - 35 thousand tons and 406 mm; aircraft carrier - 27 thousand tons and 203 mm; cruisers - 10 thousand tons and 203 mm. For other classes of ships, incl.

submarines, there were no restrictions. The construction of new naval bases in the Pacific Ocean was prohibited, with the exception of areas immediately adjacent to the coast of the United States, Canada, Alaska, the Panama Canal Zone, Australia, New Zealand and the Hawaiian Islands.

The annexes talked about protecting neutral ships from submarine attacks and condemned the use of chemical weapons during the war.
Nine Power Treaty(USA, UK, France, Japan, Italy, Belgium, Netherlands, Portugal, China). Signed 6 Feb. 1922. Provided signatory countries with “equal opportunity” in trade and business in China.

China was viewed by the parties to the treaty as a common target of exploitation. The treaty was aimed against Japan's claims to monopoly dominance in China. 4 fsvr. 1922 the so-called Washington Agreement. Japan was obliged to withdraw some troops from China, return the Qingdao-Jinan railway and ter.

Jiaozhou.
At the Washington Conference, the United States achieved a number of important concessions from Great Britain and Japan, but this did not satisfy American imperialism. The United States declared that Japanese concessions in China were insufficient, while Japan, in turn, immediately after the Washington Conference took the path of revising its decisions.

The Washington Conference was clearly anti-Soviet in nature. This was already evidenced by the fact that the RSFSR and the Far Eastern Republic were not invited to the Washington Conference. At the Washington Conference, the United States put forward a plan to seize dominance and positions on the Chinese Eastern Railway under the guise of its “internationalization,” which was not adopted as a result of the decisive protest of the RSFSR.

The Soviet state did not recognize the decisions of the Washington Conference and sent a protest to the governments participating in the conference.
Publ.: Washington Conference on Arms Limitation and Pacific and Far Eastern Issues, 1921-1922. M., 1924; Soviet-American relations 1919-1933.- In the book: Collection of documents on international politics and international law. No. 9. M., 1934; Documents of the foreign policy of the USSR. T. 4 - 5.

M., 1960 - 61. See subject - subject. decree.
Lit.: Lenin V.I. On the internal and foreign policy of the Republic. Report of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee and Council of People's Commissars December 23. (IX Bseros. Congress of Soviets December 23-29, 1921). - Complete collection. Op. Ed. 5th. T. 44, p. 304 - 305; History of diplomacy. Ed. 2nd. T. 3. M.. 1965, p. 238-248; Accidents V.Ya.

The fight for the Pacific Ocean. Japanese-American contradictions. M., 1947; Popova E.I. US policy in the Far East (1918-1922). M., 1967.
L.V.Kochetkov

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As a result of the conference, 3 treaties were adopted: treaties of the 4th, 5th and 9th powers.

Treaty of Four: USA, Japan, England and France. Treaty of non-aggression on each other's colonial possessions. A separate article of this agreement provided for the abolition of military-policy. union of Japan and Great Britain.

The Four-Power Treaty legally formalized the principle of partnership between great powers in the Asia-Pacific region on the basis of collective security guarantees as the basis of a new regional defense system.

But political obligations had to be secured with material guarantees of their fulfillment. They were recorded in the agreement signed on February 6, 1922 of the 5 powers on the limitation of naval armaments.

The main issue was the limitation of naval weapons. The treaty was of great importance in relation to the Asia-Pacific region. He put an end to the dangerous trend towards an unlimited arms race.

Treaty 9: USA, France, England, Italy, Belgium, Holland, Japan, Portugal and China.

The principle of respect for the territorial integrity and sovereignty of China was proclaimed. The countries declared equal opportunities in trade and industry on its territory. They agreed to respect China's status as a neutral state.

February 1922 The Washington Conference completed its work.

The main result of the conference was the restoration of international political balance in the Asia-Pacific region.

The Washington Defense System was formed. The Washington Conference ended the discussion of post-war problems. It was a kind of continuation of the Versailles Conference. Compared to Versailles, the Washington military system was more balanced.

Reflecting the balance of power among the leading Pacific powers, it

Any state should immediately begin consultations. If one side is attacked, the other must provide assistance. At the same time, a clause was made in the protocol when the treaty was signed: the USSR undertook an obligation to come to the aid of Czechoslovakia on the condition that France provided assistance to it.

an exchange of instruments of ratification took place in Moscow. As for the Franco-Soviet treaty, its ratification was delayed, and it came into force only on March 27, 1936.

Nazism and fascism and create democratic institutions of their own choice, freely choose for themselves a form of government.

Thus, the Yalta Conference was one of the largest international meetings during the war and the highest point of cooperation between the 3 powers against a common enemy.

Despite the disagreements, it demonstrated the possibility of successful cooperation between the state in two different political systems - socialist and capitalist. The decisions of the Yalta conference were of great importance for the quickest end of the war and for the post-war structure.

The conference developed a program for the democratic structure of the post-war world.

15.MO in Europe in the initial period of the 2nd World War.

The entry into the pre-war period was determined by the collapse of Versailles-Washing.

MO systems. England and France, which adhered to a policy of appeasement until the spring of 1939, were forced to abandon it after Hitler’s troops occupied Czechoslovakia. England and France guaranteed military support in the event of aggression by Hitler to Poland, Romania, Greece, Turkey, Belgium, Holland and Switzerland.

In response to these actions, Hitler announced his unilateral withdrawal from the naval agreements with England of 1935. Then Hitler decides to begin military operations against Poland.

Hitler had no doubt that Germany would have no problems with the quick capture of Poland, but here he had a problem of a different nature - the USSR. Poland is a state directly bordering the USSR, which meant that the USSR could not remain calm in this situation.

On April 17, 1939, the USSR invited England and France to conclude a tripartite treaty on mutual political assistance. alliance against Hitler.

But Ang. and Fr. did not seek cooperation with Russia. Negotiations proceeded very sluggishly and ultimately failed.

Under these conditions, the USSR agreed to conclude a non-aggression pact with Germany. It was signed in Moscow on August 23. 1939 People's Commissar for Foreign Affairs of the USSR Molotov and German Minister of Foreign Affairs Ribbentrop. This agreement is known as the “Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact”.

It included the following points:

- maintaining neutrality if one of the parties is attacked by another aggressor country.

— The parties will not participate in any international coalitions directly or indirectly directed against each other.

In addition to the main articles, this treaty also contained a secret protocol, according to which the participating countries agreed on the division of spheres of interests in Europe.

On September 1, 1939, Germany entered the territory of Poland, and already on the 3rd, fulfilling its duties as Great Britain.

and France declare war on Germany. The war was fought in a very “strange” manner, for which it was dubbed a “strange war”, because neither Great Britain nor France essentially waged any war. On September 17, German troops occupied Warsaw, and by the end of September the USSR occupied those territories that were agreed upon in the secret agreement. On September 28, Ribbentrop arrived in the USSR and a treaty of friendship and borders with 2 secret protocols was signed.

1st - adjustment of spheres of influence, Lithuania and the USSR.

2nd - suppression of the Polish national liberation movement.

In September

Thus, at the beginning 18th century The balance of power in Europe has completely changed. The leading states were Russia, Austria and England.

A new military system was formed - Postutrecht. It existed until the end of the 18th century. and was destroyed during the Great French Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars.

Spain. But in Spain he met decisive resistance. Given Napoleon's difficulties, Austria began to gather forces for a new fight against him.

Napoleon was interested in an alliance with Russia. In 1808, another meeting between Napoleon and Alexander took place in Erfurt. The new political situation determined the conclusion of an agreement in which Russia's interests were respected to a much greater extent than in Tilsit.

Thus, the Tilsit system of military affairs was formed, which lasted until 1812, when France started a war with Russia.

5. Eastern question in the 1st half of the 19th century.

Crimean War. Paris Congress

In the 1st half of the 19th century. One of the main issues of the Ministry of Defense was the eastern question related to the solution of the Turkish problem.

Conflict between Egypt and Turkey. In 1832 Pasha of Egypt Mehmed Ali moved his troops against the Turkish Sultan Mahmud 2. A diplomatic struggle broke out between Russia, England and France around the crisis in the East. England and France They did not want Russia's participation in resolving the eastern conflict.

The ambassadors of England and France managed to achieve peace between the Sultan

Turkey and the Pasha of Egypt.

After the conclusion of peace in 1833. Count Orlov and representatives of Mahmud 2 signed the Unkyar-Iskeles allied defense treaty between Russia and Turkey.

At the end of the 30s. The struggle between the Turkish Sultan and the Egyptian Pasha intensified again.

By 1839 A huge army was created in Turkey. In June 1839 The Turks entered Syria. The Turkish army was defeated.

July 15, 1840 England, Austria, Russia and Prussia signed a convention in London in support of the Sultan of Turkey against the Egyptian Pasha. They agreed to exert both diplomatic and military pressure on Mehmed-Ali.

In July 1841

Russia, England, Austria, Prussia and France concluded an agreement with Turkey regarding the regime for the passage of ships through the Bosporus and Dardanelles straits. In peacetime, the straits were declared closed to ships of all countries. But Turkey received the right to issue permission for light ships belonging to the embassies of friendly powers to pass through the straits.

Russia's relations with other countries regarding the Eastern question noticeably deteriorated. The cause of contention with France was the issue of holy places, the rights of the Orthodox and Catholic churches.

Nick.1 decided to use disagreements about holy places to fight Turkey. Nik.1 presented in March 1853. 2 verbal notes to the Sultan with categorical demands. The Sultan rejected them.

July 21, 1853 The Russians crossed the Prut River and began to advance in the Danube principalities without declaring war on Turkey. 4 Oct. 1853

Türkiye declared war on Russia.

On March 12, England, France and Türkiye concluded an alliance treaty. England and France declared war on Russia.

The Crimean War lasted from October 1853 to February 1854. Türkiye, France, England, and the Sardinian kingdom took part against Russia. Russia lost the war.

In February 1856 The Paris Congress took place. On March 30, the Treaty of Paris was signed.

According to it, Russia returned the city of Kars to Turkey, and France, England and Sardinia returned captured cities and ports to Russia (Sevastopol, Evpatoria, Kerch, etc.). The countries that signed the Paris Peace Treaty reaffirmed the Convention

7. Formation of military-political blocs in Europe at the end of the 19th century. 20th century

The first signs of a new situation of forces and the creation of two opposing blocs appeared in the last years of the 19th and early years of the 20th century.

A number of agreements and treaties were concluded between individual countries. European states gradually intensified their diplomatic activities.

At the end of the 19th century. Relations between Austria-Hungary and Russia, and between Germany and France became significantly more complicated. The situation in Europe was heating up. This contributed to the conclusion of the Austro-German alliance in 1879, which was essentially defensive in nature, providing for mutual military assistance in the event of a Russian attack on one of the allies and benevolent neutrality in the event of an attack by any other power.

But this alliance was indirectly directed against France, because in the event of a German attack on France and Russia entering the war on the side of France, Germany would have been provided with the support of Austria-Hungary.

Austria sought to get closer to Italy to ensure its security in the event of war with Russia. After negotiations in May 1882. Austria-Hungary, Germany and Italy signed an alliance treaty - the Triple Alliance.

The actual creation of a military-political bloc of these 3 states was the first step towards the 1st World War.

In the beginning. 20th century France and Germany were preparing for war among themselves and sought to find allies. France negotiated with England, Russia and Italy. Germany - with Italy and Russia. 1 Nov 1902 France concluded a non-aggression pact with Italy.

1904 A Franco-English treaty was concluded in London - the Entente. The agreement consisted of 2 parts - open and secret. England and France resolved colonial issues, thereby freeing their hands for a joint struggle against Germany.

Russia was to become the next participant in the Entente.

Germany actively tried to attract Russia to its side. However, the conclusion of an alliance between Germany and Russia never took place. With the efforts of France, which achieved the conclusion of an agreement between England and Russia, their negotiations began. During them, issues affecting the interests of both countries in the Middle East were discussed. Aug 31 1907 An Anglo-Russian agreement on the affairs of Persia and Afghanistan was signed.

In fact, this was the inclusion of Russia in the Entente. Thus, by the autumn of 1907. An alliance of England, France and Russia was formed, which opposed the alliance of Germany and Austria-Hungary. Italy left the Triple Alliance.

As a result, by 1914, 2 blocs had formed in the arena of world politics, the contradictions between which were intensifying.

Washington Conference 1921-1922

Germany and Austria-Hungary had less and less to count on Italian support in the event of a collision with

The United States entered, its outcome was beyond doubt.

In 1916-1917

A crisis was brewing in Russia. The anti-war and anti-government movement was growing. The internal situation in Germany was little better.

In its political circles, the opinion about the need to make peace with Russia has strengthened.

On December 22, 1917, negotiations began in Brest-Litovsk on concluding peace between Russia, Germany and other countries that were at war with it.

On March 3, 1918, a peace treaty was concluded in Brest-Litovsk between Russia and the countries of the Quadruple Alliance (Germany, Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria and Turkey).

Its conditions for Russia were very difficult.

In the summer of 1918, Germany launched a new major and this time final offensive. German troops set their sights on Paris, but the French launched a counterattack and seized the initiative. Aug 8 Eng. and franc. The troops broke through the front in the Ambien area and defeated the Germans.

After this, the Quadruple Alliance collapsed. In the fall of 1918, one country after another began to ask for peace. Bulgaria was the first to capitulate, followed by Türkiye.

Entente troops went on the offensive, broke through the German front and quickly began to advance into the center of Germany.

1918 The Allies met to discuss the terms of the armistice. In the end, it was possible to agree on demands, which boiled down to the following: the liberation of the occupied territories of Belgium, France and Luxembourg, the withdrawal of troops from Alsace-Lorraine and Romania, as well as the liberation of the left bank of the Rhine.

Two days later, the Soviet government announced the annulment of the Brest-Litovsk Peace Treaty of March 3, 1918 and the additional treaty signed by Soviet Russia and Germany on August 27, 1918.

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The fragility of the Versailles-Washington system

The decisions of the Paris and Washington conferences laid the foundations of the Versailles-Washington system of post-war international relations. Its creation made it possible to defuse post-war tensions. These decisions included a number of provisions that testified to a growing understanding of the need to update the principles of international relations, including recognition of the right to self-determination of peoples and the renunciation of war as a means of resolving conflicts.

An important event in the history of international relations was the creation of the League of Nations. The independence of a number of European countries was recognized, for which their peoples had fought for a long time. Despite these achievements, the system itself turned out to be fragile, and its collapse ultimately led to a new world war.

The fragility of the Versailles-Washington system was due to a number of reasons.

The Entente powers were not benevolent victors. The burden of post-war reconstruction fell on the defeated peoples. It was also not taken into account that these peoples had already overthrown the political regimes that participated in starting the war. When establishing reparations, the victors did not take into account the real capabilities of the vanquished, acting on the principle “the vanquished pays for everything.”

The wave of nationalism raised by the First World War did not subside. Now her strength was supported by feelings of national humiliation.

Soviet Russia also found itself outside the Versailles-Washington system.

For the victorious powers, Russia was first of all a traitor, having concluded a separate peace with the enemy. The Bolshevik regime aroused hostility, and the Entente countries attempted to overthrow it during the intervention of 1918-1919.

The ongoing civil war in Russia gave a formal reason not to invite its representatives to either Paris or Washington. The Bolsheviks, meanwhile, won the civil war and restored the state to almost pre-war borders - as the largest in the world. However, the signature of Soviet Russia was not on any peace treaty.

Pushed away from solving world affairs, she could not help but become in opposition to the Versailles-Washington system.

For the peoples of the German colonies and the former Ottoman Empire, the Versailles-Washington system was only a change of rulers; none of these peoples received independence. A mandate system was established for them. The metropolises received a mandate to govern from the League of Nations.

The creation of the system was intended as a means of weakening colonial oppression, since it provided for the trusteeship of the League over mandated territories. However, due to the withdrawal of the United States from the League of Nations, those countries that received mandates to govern these territories remained in the Council. The League's trusteeship became a fiction, and the position of the mandated territories was no different from the position of the colonies.

This demonstrated to the colonial peoples the great powers' commitment to colonialism. Therefore, the anti-colonial liberation movement continued.

At the Paris Conference, the great powers showed complete disregard for the possible economic consequences of the treaties, which burdened the world economy with exorbitant reparation payments and severed centuries-old economic ties.

They were amazingly short-sighted when they forced the young German democracy to sign a peace that was shameful for the Germans.

Stabilization of international relations in the 20s

The signing of peace treaties and the settlement of major contradictions between the victorious powers contributed to the stabilization of international relations.

Efforts made in the 1920s to overcome the most obvious weaknesses of the Versailles-Washington system further contributed to this stabilization.

Recognition of the USSR

The futility of attempts to isolate Soviet Russia became obvious, which, after the collapse of its leadership’s plans to lead the world socialist revolution, began a campaign for its international recognition. In 1922, she was first invited to an international conference on economic issues in Genoa.

During this conference, Soviet Russia and Germany signed the Treaty of Rapallo, under which they agreed to withdraw mutual claims and establish diplomatic relations. In 1924, the period of diplomatic recognition of the USSR from other Western countries began. The only exception was the USA.

Relations between Western countries and the Soviet Union remained unequal. The USSR was never admitted to the League of Nations during these years, but was still recognized as a member of the international community.

Softening the position of Germany

Peace conditions were softened for the defeated countries and, above all, for Germany.

The most pressing issue remained about reparations. The volume of reparations established in 1921 was beyond Germany's strength. In 1924, a plan developed by the American banker Charles Dawes was adopted, under which the total amount of reparations was not reduced, but the amount of annual payments was reduced.

The plan also provided for the provision of a large Anglo-American loan to Germany. The adoption of this plan contributed to the beginning of the recovery of the German economy.

In 1929, the amount of reparations was significantly reduced. The idea of historical reconciliation with the new Germany was put forward. The main propagandists of this idea were the foreign ministers of France and Germany, Aristide Briand and Gustav Stresemann.

Rhine Guarantee Pact

In 1925, the Rhine Guarantee Pact was signed, which contained obligations for France, Germany and Belgium to respect the inviolability of their borders and not to attack each other.

This was the first recognition of Germany as an equal partner after the war. In 1926, Germany was admitted to the League of Nations as a permanent member of the Council. Thus, it was granted the status of a great power. All this made international relations more stable.

In the 1920s, a major step was taken in the development of international law. For the first time, disarmament issues were widely discussed at the intergovernmental level.

These steps, however, were doomed to failure, since the Versailles-Washington system established inequality in armaments, and all negotiations actually resulted in the consolidation of this inequality.

Geneva Convention

At the same time, in 1925 it was possible to sign the Geneva Convention on the Prohibition of the Use of Chemical and Bacteriological Weapons.

During the First World War, almost 40 thousand soldiers died from gas attacks. A. Briand also initiated the signing of a special international agreement on the renunciation of wars (Kellogg-Briand Pact), which came into force in June 1929.

US isolationism

The USA remained detached from European and world affairs. The Republicans who were in power in America in the 1920s pursued an isolationist course that was not consistent with the role of the United States in world affairs. The pace of economic development in the United States after the war was the highest.

They were the creditors of the whole world. Loans from the United States allowed Germany to pay reparations, which were then returned to the United States in the form of payments on war debts. Isolationism promoted England and France to leading roles in world politics.

International relations, in general, developed in the 1920s without crises or acute contradictions.

There are several reasons that made the post-war peace system unstable and ineffective.

6. Washington Conference 1921-1922: content and significance.

The Versailles order was not comprehensive. First of all, the USSR and the USA “fell out” of it - two major powers, without which ensuring stability in Europe in the twentieth century was no longer possible. In fact, the multipolar structure of European relations was restored in the spirit of the European balance of the 19th century, when the ideal option seemed to be the absence of countries on the continent that would be too clearly ahead in their geopolitical and other capabilities.

It was these ideas that led to the fact that France's efforts to weaken Germany as much as possible were crowned with success: it was divided into parts, artificially reduced in size and placed in an extremely difficult economic situation. But for the same reason, France itself, through the efforts of Britain, did not gain dominance in Europe and was unable to fully implement plans to expand its influence.
But such a European balance was possible only with the participation of Prussia (whose place was now occupied by a united Germany) and Russia.

The new European security had to be built, firstly, in the conditions of a united Germany, and, secondly, in the conditions of Russia, which had decreased in size and was isolated from European affairs.

Unfortunately, only the first of these new circumstances was taken into account, which resulted in the fragmentation of Germany, which made it possible to postpone the conflict between the interests of the largest European countries and the natural desire of the Germans for unification. The second, at first, was not taken into account at all - at that moment it seemed that US participation in European affairs was sufficient compensation for Russia’s withdrawal from European politics. In this situation, the failure to cooperate with the United States undermined the foundations of the Versailles order as it was originally conceived.

2. The fundamental weakness of Versailles was the scheme it laid down for the economic interaction of European countries. The fact is that the new state delimitation completely destroyed economic ties in Central and Eastern Europe. Instead of a single market, permeable and fairly open, Europe turned out to be a territory divided into several dozen small markets, fenced off from each other by customs walls.

Often, new small states competed sharply not only in the political, but also in the economic sphere, completely concentrating on their own economic difficulties and not trying to make joint efforts to overcome them.

The proclaimed principle of self-determination of nations created an economic split that European countries were never able to overcome. This created constant instability in the economic situation in the Old World. Europe was not ready to make joint decisions on financial and economic issues.

In addition, the economic ruin of Germany, crushed by the weight of the reparation payments imposed on it and therefore unable to emerge from the state of depression with the speed necessary for economic recovery not only in the country, but throughout Europe, had a decisive impact on the negative development of the situation.

The global economic crisis of 1929-1933 led to a sharp deterioration in relations both between the victorious countries and between them and the defeated states, etc. All this, coupled with the intranational crisis of most states, led to the collapse of the Versailles-Washington system and the Second World War.

Peculiarities

Discrimination of the position of the defeated states and Soviet Russia.

Thus, Germany lost the rights to its colonies, was severely limited in its possession of the armed forces and was suppressed economically through the mechanism of reparations. Similar conditions were provided for Turkey and Bulgaria, and Austria-Hungary ceased to exist as a single state.

In addition, all the defeated states suffered significant territorial losses. The defeated states were “excluded” from a number of system-forming elements for a certain time and transformed exclusively into objects of influence of the Versailles subsystem. Soviet Russia, although not formally defeated, was also excluded at the initial stage.

The Treaty of Rapallo of 1922 is considered to be the formal recognition of this fact on the part of Russia. The conclusion of this treaty gives impetus to broad cooperation between Germany and Soviet Russia.

Consolidating the leadership of the USA, Great Britain and France in the new system, which actually gave them the right to collectively change the characteristics of the international system and formulate its principles.

Other winners (such as Italy) remained in the background.

Political isolation of the United States from European affairs. After the failure of Wilson’s “14 points,” the United States withdrew from solving political problems in Europe, choosing economic influence as a priority means of foreign policy in this region. The Dawes Plan (1924), as well as to a certain extent the Young Plan (1929), demonstrated the degree of economic dependence of European countries on the United States, which by 1918 had become the main creditor, although before the outbreak of the First World War they themselves were a debtor to European countries.
The formation of a number of new sovereign subjects of international relations in Europe, whose foreign policy at later stages of the development of the system contributed to the development of crisis processes.
Creation of the League of Nations - an instrument for maintaining the status quo in the system of international relations.

This instrument, actually controlled by France and Great Britain, turned out, however, to be ineffective in fulfilling its stabilization functions.

The world is gradually ceasing to be Eurocentric, the international system is beginning to transform into a global one.
The Versailles-Washington system was characterized by a certain asynchrony of transformation processes in the two main subsystems (European and Far Eastern), which, in turn, led to subsequent destabilization of the system, that is, systemic changes in one of the subsystems over time caused a new surge of transformations in the other.
A specific type of control characteristic of a given system, which can be characterized as egalitarian-hierarchical.

While within the system there was a certain hierarchy of means and subjects of systemic control, in practice the main elements of control were represented by egalitarian forms (collective security, the League of Nations, international legal agreements of a universal nature).

Prerequisites:

*national interests of states and their clash.

* The market economy has entered a new stage - monopoly.

* Consolidation of enterprises into cartels (dividing the market). And also syndicates - the production of similar products. Singles are being pushed out. Rapid economic growth.

*Polit. the elite begins to merge with the economic elite.

*The struggle for the redivision of an already divided world. The struggle is intensifying due to changes in the balance of forces on the world stage. Change the rate of economy. growth in the USA and Germany brought them to 1st and 2nd places in industrial production (followed by England, France, Italy, Russia).

*Penetration of capital beyond one’s own colonies and into foreign ones. German and American capital are penetrating into China.

* The Vienna Concert began to blur.

After the Franco-Prussian War, France sought revenge.

The Vienna system of defense is being transformed into a system of armed peace (a system of opposing coalitions or blocs).

Causes:

Exacerbation of contradictions

England with - France, USA, Germany, Russia.

France with - England, Germany.

Germany - with everyone.

Russia with Austria-Hungary, Turkey.

Austria-Hungary with – Russia, Serbia, Bulgaria.

Italy with England, France, Germany.

Turkey with Russia.

USA with Europe.

Japan with - Russia, USA, England, France.

Early 1900s – conflicts. Imperialist takeovers.

1895 – first Anglo-Boer War.

1898 – Spanish-American.

1899-1902 – second Anglo-Boer War.

1904-1905 – Russian-Japanese.

1910, 1911 – England and France. The fight for Morocco. Two Moroccan crises.

1912, 1913 – Balkan Wars.

Preparations for war begin. Militarization.

From 1900-1914, military spending in England, France and Russia increased by 73%.

Germany by 80% (particularly successful and ahead of the military industry).

By the beginning of the war, the German army was better equipped materially than in the whole world. The most qualified officers. The best infrastructure. The best intelligence. Militarization of consciousness.

Only Germany had a ready plan for waging war. "Schlieffen Plan" Blitzkrieg - lightning war.

Chauvinistic hysteria is flaring up in Europe. Insults, exposure of opponents.

Everyone was in favor of war except the socialist parties.

Reason for war:

Results of the First World War

87% of the world's population is involved in war.

Colossal losses. 10 million - killed. 20 million – wounded.

Russia - 4 million 320 thousand killed, 5-6 million wounded.

Germany - 2 million 280 thousand - killed. 4 million – wounded.

France - 1 million 359 thousand (1 million 872 thousand) - killed. 2 million 260 thousand – wounded.

Great Britain - 760 thousand (about 1 million) killed.

USA - 50 thousand - killed. 230 thousand wounded.

Colossal destruction (air bombing). Cathedrals, a symbol of the spiritual life of society, were destroyed.

Crises caused by war. Class struggle, revolutions in Russia, Austria-Hungary, Germany.

Creation of a new type of state. structures - the dictatorship of the proletariat.

The emergence of a bipolar world. The collapse of European empires, the formation of new states.

A radical change in the balance of forces in the defense system. Europe has ceased to be the undisputed center of the world. The balance of power in European countries has changed.

The emergence of a new factor in international relations - socialist.

Awareness of the results and consequences of the war. The reluctance to allow a new war led to the formation of an ideology and policy - pacifism.

The war caused a division between party and political parties.

forces and the emergence of parties of the extreme left (communists) and the extreme right (fascists).

The war gave impetus to the development of science and technology.

Paris Peace Conference and its decisions. Participants:

27 countries (heads of state and foreign ministries). Russia and the 4th alliance are not invited. The main role:

council 10i, council 3 (from Great Britain - Lloyd George (p-minister), from France - Clemenceau (p-minister), from the USA - Wilson (president))

Tasks:

Legally formalize the end of the First World War, for which it was supposed to develop and sign peace treaties with Germany and its allies.

Firmly establishing the borders of new states and preventing wars between them.

develop principles and forms of relations with the state with a socialist system.

Soviet Russia.

Make decisions on the colonial possessions of the losing countries.

Progress: Tense situation. Everyone wanted something for themselves. The US desire to play the role of arbiter in European affairs was determined.

Results:

1) Memorandum “on the Allied intervention against Russia.”

Treaty of Versailles 1919 (with Germany)

Treaty of Saint-Germain 1919 (with Austria)

Treaty of Neuilly 1919 (with Bulgaria)

Treaty of Trianon 1920 (with Hungary)

Treaty of Sèvres 1920 (with Turkey)

All these agreements laid the foundation for the Versailles-Washington system of world organization. The Paris Peace Conference also decided to create the League of Nations (an organization aimed at uniting states to jointly develop decisions on the most important issues.) The Charter of the League of Nations is based on Wilson's 14 Points, which guaranteed lasting peace.

The main content of peace treaties with Germany and its allies.

Treaty of Versailles 1919 - the treaty that officially ended the First World War HYPERLINK "http://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/1914" of 1914-1918. Signed June 28, 1919 at Versailles The United States of America, the British Empire, France, Italy and Japan (and 21 other countries) on the one hand, and capitulated Germany on the other. A commission was created to monitor the German economy. Prohibition of the presence of the army, navy and air force. Germany lost all its colonies and part of its territories. Germany must pay huge reparations.

Treaty of Saint Germain- a peace treaty signed at the Saint-Germain Palace following the First World War between the countries of the Entente and the newly formed Republic of Austria.

signed September 10, 1919. Austria recognized the separation from it of Hungary, Czechoslovakia, and part of the Polish territories, and also agreed to territorial concessions in favor of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes and Romania. Western Galicia was annexed to Poland, Transcarpathian Ukraine was annexed to Czechoslovakia. Transylvania and part of Banat, which had previously been part of Austria-Hungary, were transferred to Romania. Bukovina was transferred to Romania, and later, in 1920, Bessarabia. Austria also lost South Tyrol and Istria, which went to Italy. In addition, the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes received from Austria Dalmatia, parts of the Western Carniola, Carinthia and Styria.

Among other things, Austria lost its military and merchant fleet in the Adriatic and on the Danube, pledged to pay reparations to the victors and agreed to the unhindered transit of any allied cargo through its territory. The military articles of the treaty prohibited Austria from having a standing army.

Treaty of Sèvres- Signed on August 10, 1920 in Sèvres (France) by the Entente countries and the states that joined them (Great Britain, France, Italy, Japan, Belgium, Greece, Poland, Portugal, Romania, the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, Hijaz, Czechoslovakia and Armenia), on the one hand , and the government of the Sultan’s Turkey, on the other. Thus, the Treaty of Sèvres formalized the division of the Arab and European possessions of the Ottoman Empire between the European powers, as well as the dismemberment of Turkey itself, consolidating a semi-colonial regime in it.

Treaty of Neuilly was concluded between Bulgaria and the Entente countries. signed on November 27, 1919 in the Paris suburb of Neuilly-sur-Seine (Fr. Neuilly-sur-Seine).

Bulgaria lost part of its territory (over 11 thousand km² or 1/10 of the country's territory and 1/7 of the population), which was transferred to Greece, Romania and the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes.

Treaty of Trianon was concluded between the victorious countries and Hungary. Signed on June 4, 1920 at the Grand Trianon Palace of Versailles. Entered into force on July 26, 1921. Hungary lost 2/3 of its territory and population (including 3 million ethnic Hungarians), 88% of forest resources, 83% of iron production and 67% of the banking and credit system, was perceived in Slovakia and Romania as restoration of justice, and in Hungary itself - like a national tragedy.

Washington Conference

worked from November 12, 1921 to February 6, 1922. The USA, Great Britain, China, Japan, France, Italy, the Netherlands, Belgium and Portugal took part in the conference. Representatives of the British Dominions and India were present. The Soviet delegation was not invited to the conference.

Four Power Treaty of December 13, 1921 between the USA, Great Britain, France and Japan, which became known as the "Quadruple Pacific Treaty" or "Far Eastern Entente". The treaty was intended to unite the forces of the Allies against the national liberation movement of the peoples of the Pacific Ocean and the Far East. Under this treaty, the signatories pledged to mutually respect the rights to islands and island possessions in the Pacific Ocean. The treaty also provided for the liquidation of the Anglo-Japanese alliance of 1902, which was aimed at that period against US plans in the Far East and the Pacific.

Four Power Treaty(USA, UK, Japan, France; December 13, 1921). The treaty provided for the joint defense of the territorial rights of the contracting states. He eliminated the Anglo-Japanese alliance, which, according to the United States, did not allow them to strengthen their influence in the Far East and the Pacific.

Five Power Treaty(USA, UK, France, Japan, Italy) - February 6, 1922 - “On the limitation of naval armaments.” The treaty allowed the United States to increase its navy in the Pacific. A fleet that could stand up to the British and Japanese fleets combined. The treaty prohibited the construction of new military bases in the Pacific Ocean, with the exception of the coastal islands of the United States, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, the Panama Canal Zone and the Hawaiian Islands.

Nine Power Treaty(five previous ones plus Belgium, the Netherlands, Portugal, China, February 6, 1922) provided for the principle of respect for the sovereignty, territorial and administrative integrity of China. The great powers committed themselves not to seek to divide China into spheres of influence and to adhere to the principles of open doors and equality of opportunity.

Introduction

Washington Conference 1921-1922 - international conference on the limitation of naval weapons and the problems of the Far East and the Pacific Ocean. Held from November 12, 1921 to February 6, 1922 at Constitution Hall in Washington. The conference was attended by the USA, Great Britain, China, Japan, France, Italy, Belgium, the Netherlands and Portugal, as well as the five British dominions, although the main issues were resolved by the three strongest naval powers of the USA - the British Empire - Japan. Soviet Russia did not receive an invitation to Washington, as a result of which it declared its non-recognition of any decisions of the conference.

1. Main agreements

Four Power Treaty of December 13, 1921 between the United States, Great Britain, France and Japan, which became known as the "Quadruple Pacific Treaty" or "Far Eastern Entente". The treaty was intended to unite the forces of the Allies against the national liberation movement of the peoples of the Pacific Ocean and the Far East. Under this treaty, the signatories pledged to mutually respect the rights to islands and island possessions in the Pacific Ocean. The treaty also provided (under pressure from American diplomacy) for the liquidation of the Anglo-Japanese alliance of 1902, which at that time was directed against US plans in the Far East and the Pacific. Some British dominions (primarily Canada), who feared the strengthening of Japan at the expense of China and other countries of the Far East, also spoke out against the Anglo-Japanese alliance. Thus, the agreement legally consolidated the status quo and temporary balance of the four powers in the Pacific region.

Nine Power Treaty dated February 6, 1922, signed by all conference participants. The agreement concerned ensuring guarantees of the territorial integrity of China, respect for its sovereignty, and also proclaimed the principle of “open doors and equal opportunities” in relation to China in the field of trade and business activities and obliged not to resort to using the internal situation in China in order to obtain special rights and privileges , which may harm the rights and interests of other states parties to the treaty. China was viewed by the parties to the treaty as a common target of exploitation. This treaty was aimed against Japan's claims to monopoly dominance in China. Even earlier, on February 4, 1922, Japan was forced to sign the so-called Washington Agreement- Sino-Japanese agreement on the evacuation of Japanese troops from the Chinese province of Shandong, as well as on the return to China of the Qingdao-Jinan railway and the territory of Jiaozhou. The head of the Japanese delegation pledged that the Japanese government would not demand that the Chinese government fulfill the fifth group of Japan’s “twenty-one demands” regarding the appointment of Japanese advisers to the Chinese government, etc. However, Japan rejected China’s demand for the withdrawal of Japanese troops from Southern Manchuria. Simultaneously with the Nine Power Treaty, on February 6, 1922, the Treaty on the Chinese Customs Tariff was signed, which established the customs inequalities of China.

1.1. Washington Conference in works of art

Jaroslav Hasek gave a parody of the work of the conference in the humorous story "The Conference on Disarmament".

Bibliography:

“Now that restrictions have been placed on the increase in the tonnage of navies, a new competition begins, it will be a competition for quality” (Lloyd George).

Source: http://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washington_conference_(1921-1922)

Washington Conference 1921-1922 During the First World War, Japan, almost without taking part in hostilities, managed to strengthen its positions in the Pacific Ocean and the Far East. In particular, it imposed a series of enslaving agreements on China, which provided it with great economic privileges and allowed it to squeeze out its competitors - the United States and England - in the Chinese market. At the Paris Peace Conference, Japan received official recognition of its “rights” to the Shandong Peninsula and a number of German island colonies in the Pacific Ocean. This caused objections from the US and China. The ruling circles of the United States decided to revise the decisions of the Paris Peace Conference regarding the Far East, and also to discuss the issue of naval weapons.

The conference took place in Washington in 1921-1922. In addition to the United States, England, Japan, France, Italy, Belgium, Portugal, Holland, and China took part in it. Soviet Russia, although a major Pacific power, was not invited. The American delegation played a leading role at the Washington Conference. The conference ended with the signing of three main agreements.

"Four Power Treaty" of December 13, 1921 between the United States, Great Britain, France and Japan, which became known as the "Quadruple Pacific Treaty" or "Far Eastern Entente". The treaty was intended to unite the forces of the Allies against the national liberation movement of the peoples of the Pacific Ocean and the Far East. According to this treaty, they signed and pledged to mutually respect the rights to islands and island possessions in the Pacific Ocean. The treaty also provided (under pressure from American diplomacy) for the liquidation of the Anglo-Japanese alliance of 1902, which at that time was directed against US plans in the Far East and the Pacific. Some British dominions (primarily Canada), who feared the strengthening of Japan at the expense of China and other countries of the Far East, also spoke out against the Anglo-Japanese alliance. Thus, the agreement legally consolidated the status quo and temporary balance of the four powers in the Pacific region.

"Treaty of the Five Powers" better known as the Washington Naval Agreement of 1922.(England, USA, France, Japan and Italy) prohibited the construction of warships with a displacement of over 35 thousand tons and established the ratio between the navies (in the class of battleships) of these countries in the proportion 5: 5: 3: 1.75: 1, 75. This was a great success for American diplomacy. The United States achieved recognition of the equality of US naval weapons in the class of the largest ships with the “mistress of the seas” England. Traditionally, England believed that it should have a fleet not inferior to the combined fleet of the other two major naval powers. British politicians jealously ensured that other powers did not encroach on this principle. Now England had to recognize equality with the United States, which was also interested in limiting the displacement of battleships and aircraft carriers to 35 thousand tons, since the Panama Canal could not accommodate ships of larger tonnage. US aircraft carriers of larger displacement could not quickly transfer from the Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean.

"Nine Power Treaty" dated February 6, 1922 called on the participating countries of the Washington Conference to respect the sovereignty, independence and territorial integrity of China. The treaty committed all nations to the principles of "open door" and "equal opportunity" in trade and industrial development throughout China. This meant a formal rejection by the leading capitalist powers of the previous policy of dividing China into “spheres of influence.” However, he did not cancel the system of unequal agreements between the imperialist powers and this country. The United States insisted that Japan abandon the seizure of the Shandong Peninsula and return it to China, which meant a revision of the Treaty of Versailles.

The Washington agreements reflected changes in power in the Pacific region in favor of the United States. However, Japan continued to maintain a strong position and was not going to accept the loss of its leadership. A new knot of contradictions was emerging in this area.

The Washington Agreements were an addition to the peace treaties that were concluded in 1919-1920. between the victorious countries and the losing countries. The Versailles-Washington treaty system defined the terms of the post-war peace settlement in Europe, Asia, Africa and the Pacific and prepared the way for the temporary stabilization of capitalism in the sphere of international relations.

Some time after the end of World War I, the victorious countries established a new peace system. The main document of the system is the Versailles Peace Treaty, concluded at Versailles in June 1919 by Germany on the one hand and the victorious countries on the other. Its main part was the status of the League of Nations.

The Versailles Conference began on January 18, 1919. Each of the winning countries at the conference pursued its own interests, the nations’ attitude towards each other was distrustful, they had to go through a difficult path together. In total, delegations from 27 countries took part. But all the most important issues were brought to the meeting of the “Council of Ten”. Representatives of 5 countries were present here: France, Japan, England, USA and Italy. The most stringent demands were put forward by the delegation from France - the weakening and dismemberment of Germany.

After the Treaty of Versailles was reached, some peace terms were announced:

Germany loses a significant part of its territories, which go to France;
Germany loses all its colonies;
The German army must be reduced to one hundred thousand people, in addition, it is necessary to disband its general headquarters, aviation and military flotilla;
Germany must pay reparations to the winning countries.

This entire system was built on the basis of this peace treaty. But this did not guarantee stabilization of relations. In a number of European countries, civil internal wars continued to occur. Then the United States proposed holding another conference to resolve conflicts in Washington.

In 1921, the United States entered into its agreement without mention of the League of Nations. The American government put forward the “14 points” of peace, while the USSR provided the “Decree on Peace”. Despite the fact that the agreement signed by the United States was supposed to unite the world community, because of it a lot of disagreements arose, which subsequently gave rise to a new war.

Treaties and results of the Versailles system during the Washington Conference

In total, the countries participating in the Washington Conference signed three agreements:

"Treaty of Four" Signed in December 1921. The parties to the agreement were: France, England, Japan and the USA. The treaty provides for the inviolability of the participating countries' possessions in the Pacific Ocean.
"Treaty of Five" Signed in February 1922. The treaty provided for the use of a limited number of countries' naval weapons.
"Treaty of Nine" The principle of “open doors” was introduced into international relations. The treaty was mainly aimed at the problems of China.

The end of the Washington Conference is considered the beginning of a new model of relations between countries. The result of the Versailles system was the emergence of new centers of power within states that were able to establish international relations. Post-war tensions between the great powers were eased.

Principles of the Versailles Peace System

By creating the League of Nations, the security of European countries was ensured. Before this time, there had already been attempts to create such a body, but in the post-war period it received legal confirmation. Now European countries began to unite to protect common interests and maintain peace.
One of the principles of the Versailles peace system was strict adherence to international law.
Germany lost all its colonies. France and England may also lose their colonies. Imperialism and colonialism in Europe were completely suppressed.
An agreement was signed to adhere to the principle of demilitarism: the state needs as many weapons as necessary to protect the territory.
The principle of individuality is being replaced by the principle of collegiality: all international issues should be resolved jointly by European states.

Causes of collapse and crises Versailles-Washington system

Among the main reasons for the collapse of the Versailles system are:

The system did not cover all world powers. First of all, it did not include the guarantors of the USA and the USSR. Without these two countries it was impossible to ensure stability in Europe. In Europe, a system was established in which there should be no countries on the continent with greater capabilities than others.
One of the main weaknesses of the Versailles system is considered to be an undeveloped scheme of economic international interaction. The new system completely broke economic ties between Eastern and Central Europe. There was no single single economic market, but instead there were dozens of separate markets. An economic split arose in Europe, which economically developed countries were unable to overcome.

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When was the Treaty of Versailles concluded?

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Holding the Washington Conference. The Washington Conference and the most important treaties adopted at it. Paris Peace Conference and its decisions

Main agreements[ | code]

Washington Conference in Works of Art[ | code]

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FOUR POWERS TREATY 1921

Washington Conference (1921-1922)

Participants of the Washington Conference

Reasons and goals of the conference

Results and decisions of the Washington Conference

Washington Conference 1921-1922

Versailles-Washington system

Results of the Washington Conference agreement

The Washington Peace Conference took place

Write down the results of the Washington Conference

What was France's goal in the Washington Conference?

Versailles-Washington Conference

Washington Conference 1921-1922

Washington Conference of 1921, its decisions

As a result of the conference, 3 treaties were adopted: treaties of the 4th, 5th and 9th powers.

Washington Conference 1921-1922

The fragility of the Versailles-Washington system

6. Washington Conference 1921-1922: content and significance.

Washington Conference

Treaties and results of the Versailles system during the Washington Conference

Principles of the Versailles Peace System

Causes of collapse and crises Versailles-Washington system

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When was the Treaty of Versailles concluded?