Processor frequency and its correct understanding. What does processor clock speed affect?
The main criterion when choosing a processor for a new computer is its performance. The bigger The processor is fast, the faster you work with various programs, utilities and the operating system itself. The speed of the processor depends, as already mentioned, on clock frequency, measured in megahertz (MHz) and gigahertz (GHz). Moreover, it depends on the volume cache memory first and subsequent levels, data bus frequency (FSB) And processor capacity.
Megahertz is a million vibrations per second, while a gigahertz represents a billion vibrations per second. It is generally accepted that the higher the clock speed a processor operates, the better its performance. However, this is not always true. Moreover, the overall system performance is highly dependent not only on the processor, but also on all other components. Let's say you purchased a 3 GHz Core i3 processor, but installed only 2048 MB, and also used it at low data transfer speeds. With this configuration, the differences in performance between a 2 and 3 GHz processor will be barely noticeable. In other words, the performance of a computer depends on the performance of the slowest component, be it the processor, RAM, hard drive, or even the power supply (since if the power supply is not enough to ensure the operation of the hardware components, you can completely forget about the stable operation of the computer).
Processor clock speed and its catch
Let's take a closer look at the question why processor clock speed does not guarantee its high performance. The clock frequency, as its name implies, consists of beats, or clock periods. Each operation performed by the processor takes one clock cycle and several wait cycles. The wait cycle is an “empty” cycle, i.e. a clock cycle during which no operations are performed. Wait cycles are necessary to ensure synchronous operation of different computer components. Different commands take different numbers of clock cycles to execute. For example, processor Core i3 can execute at least 12 commands per clock cycle. The fewer clock cycles required to execute a command, the higher the processor. In addition, other factors also affect performance, for example, the size of the first/second level cache.
Processors Core I and Athlon II They have different internal architectures, so commands are executed differently in them. As a result, it is impossible to compare these processors based on clock speed. For example, a processor Athlon II X4 641 With a clock speed of 2.8 GHz, it has performance roughly comparable to a Core I3 processor running at 3 GHz.
A whole generation of computer users has already grown up and missed the famous “megahertz race” that unfolded between the two leading manufacturers for desktop computers (for those who don’t know, Intel and AMD) at the turn of the millennium. Its end came around 2004, when it became obvious that processor frequency was not the only characteristic that affected its performance. The extremely “gluttonous” and extremely high-frequency Pentium IV processors on the Prescott core came very close to 4 GHz, and at the same time had difficulty competing with the K8 architecture, on which the new “stones” from AMD were built, which had a frequency of no higher than 2.6-2. 8 GHz.
After this, both manufacturers simultaneously moved away from the practice of identifying their products by operating frequency and moved on to abstract model indices. This decision was justified by the reluctance to mislead the end user about the performance of the processor, focusing on only one of its characteristics. Indeed, there is also the processor bus frequency, the size of the cache memory, the technological process by which the core is manufactured, and much more. But processor frequency still remains one of the most visual and intuitive measures of CPU “quality” for most people.
The processor actually affects its performance, characterizing the number of operations performed per second. But the fact is that processors built on different cores spend different numbers of clock cycles to perform one operation, and this parameter can differ significantly from generation to generation. It is thanks to this that the current processor with a nominal frequency of 2.0 GHz will leave far behind the flagship of seven years ago with a clock frequency of 3.8 GHz. In addition, the performance of the processor, as already mentioned above, is affected by both the size of the cache memory (the larger it is, the less often the processor will be forced to access the relatively slow RAM), and the frequency of the processor bus (the higher it is, the faster the data exchange will be). between the “stone” and RAM), and many other, not so noticeable, but no less important, characteristics.
Recently, such a concept as the maximum processor frequency has begun to come into use.
Gradually, both Intel and AMD are introducing such a feature as auto-overclocking into their products. The technology, which is essentially the same, is called by one manufacturer by another - Turbo Core, but this does not change its essence: the processor frequency can dynamically change, and automatically, without user intervention. The need to use such technology is due to the fact that multi-core modern processors have essentially become the norm, but multi-threading of modern applications, unfortunately, is not yet the case. The operating system, seeing that one of the cores is loaded much more heavily than the others, independently increases the frequency of this core, while trying to keep the processor within its “native” thermal package (i.e., the system tries to protect itself from overheating of the equipment). Moreover, depending on the processor model and specific conditions, such a frequency increase can range from 100 to 600-700 MHz, and this, you see, is already a significant increase in performance. This technology is supported by most of the latest processors from both manufacturers. For Intel, this is, in particular, all CPUs of the Core i5 and Core i7 range, for AMD - all processors on the AM3+ socket, processors on the FM1 socket (except for processors with a disabled graphics core), as well as some “stones” for the AM3 platform (six-core Tuban and quad-core Zosma). Moreover, for socket-based devices, such auto-overclocking is all the more relevant, considering that due to some architectural features, full-fledged “overclocking” by increasing the processor bus frequency is practically impossible. However, this is a topic for a completely different article...
The processor (CPU or CPU) is the central link of almost every modern device. It is capable of simultaneously performing any calculations and executing commands from various programs. Mainly, the CPU determines how fast and productive a computer or laptop will be. It is his choice that gives further direction to the process of selecting the remaining components.
Choosing a processor for a computer or laptop is not difficult. First you need to decide on the purposes for which it is purchased. Afterwards, you need to understand the main parameters of its central “brain”.
Types of AMD, Intel processor sockets and system bus frequency
A socket is a processor connector for connecting to the motherboard (see photo). Today, most motherboards are made for either Intel or AMD CPUs. It is important to know that the CPUs of these brands are not interchangeable - their sockets differ both in shape and electrically. They are divided into classes based on the type of connector. Each such class consists of models with sockets of the same shape. In this case, it is possible to insert them into the same motherboard. The main thing is that its chipset has appropriate support.
Also, when purchasing a CPU, for example, with an LGA1155 socket, the motherboard must be purchased with a similar socket. Over time, new connectors began to have an increasing number of contacts, which led to a constant increase in the bus frequency - the speed at which the CPU communicates with the motherboard. Thus, the more modern the socket type, the higher the bus frequency. It, like the clock frequency, is measured in hertz. The higher this value, the faster the information exchange process takes place. It is best to choose a CPU with a bus frequency of 1.6 GHz or higher.
At the time of writing, Intel's most popular socket is LGA1155. For more powerful servers with Core i7 or Xeon CPUs, the LGA1366 socket is available. The latest development was the LGA2011 socket. It is used in some Ivy Bridge CPUs. Although the price of such CPUs is falling, motherboards with such a socket are very expensive. There is no need to pay extra for a small increase in performance.
AMD has compatible "+" series sockets. For example, the most popular AM3+ connectors are also suitable for AM3. This allows you to expand the possibilities for improving the CPU. Sockets FM1 and FM2 were designed for AMD Fusion CPUs, which feature powerful integrated graphics, an excellent solution for those who do not want to spend money on a discrete graphics card.
Processor clock speed: choose for games and everyday tasks
The clock speed is the total number of actions that the central processor can perform in one second. This characteristic is measured in hertz (Hz). For example, a clock frequency of 1.8 GHz per second is the execution of 1 billion 800 million operations. The higher this indicator, the faster the CPU works. Therefore, you should choose a CPU with a higher clock speed. To run office applications, comfortably watch videos in Full HD resolution and listen to music, the power of a dual-core CPU with a frequency of about 1500-2000 MHz is sufficient. Modern games and multimedia tasks will require a clock frequency of 2000-2500 MHz - 4-6 or 8-core (according to program requirements).
Please note that modern models from Intel are equipped with proprietary Turbo Boost technology. This is an automatic increase in the nominal frequency at the request of the operating system (see photo).
Processor cache memory: select the required volume
Cache memory is the CPU's ultra-fast memory into which the data of an executing program is loaded. The larger the cache size, the faster this data will be processed. There are currently 3 cache levels:
L1 is the fastest memory because it has the smallest size (8-128 KB);
L2 – slower than L1, but larger in size (128-12288 KB);
L3 is the slowest memory. It has the largest size or may be completely absent (0-16384 KB). The latter is possible for specially made processors or certain servers.
When choosing a CPU, the L3 cache must be calculated so that each core has at least 1 MB of capacity. You should take into account the fact that in the characteristics it is indicated entirely for the entire processor. Based on this, you should not purchase a 4-core CPU with a Level 3 cache of less than 4 MB.
Number of processor cores: more is not always better
The Core is a small crystal made of silicon. Its area is approximately 1 square centimeter. It contains a CPU implemented using the smallest logic elements. At the moment, it is no longer possible to raise the CPU clock frequency higher, because its value has reached its maximum value. Therefore, manufacturers have switched to increasing the number of cores. The advantage of multi-core is especially pronounced when simultaneously running resource-intensive multitasking programs, but only those that support this property. Therefore, if the CPU has 4 cores, and the running program is designed to use only 2, the remaining 2 will not be used. In the opposite case, for example, the Ghost Recon game optimized for four cores demonstrates a confident superiority over the dual-core mode (see photo).
Therefore, when choosing a CPU for everyday tasks, it is more important to rely not on the number of cores, but on its clock speed and cache memory size. However, when buying a computer or laptop for gaming, it is better to purchase a modern quad-core version.
Processor size: 32 and 64 bits
The number of bits of information processed by the CPU during one clock cycle is characterized by the bit depth. It can have a value of 8, 16, 32 and 64. Nowadays, all major programs are designed for 32-bit or 64-bit architecture.When choosing a computer or laptop, please note that 32-bit systems support no more than 3.75 GB of RAM. 64-bit allows you to transfer RAM volumes of more than 4 GB, which is necessary for modern applications, where 4 GB is already a minimum.
Processor graphics core, heat dissipation and technologies
In addition to a certain number of conventional cores, the CPU can be additionally equipped with a core that has graphics computing capabilities. This significantly reduces the load on the integrated GPU or discrete graphics card. The latest developments in models with a graphics core are quite capable of replacing budget video card options. They support Full HD video as well as low-power games. Intel has released similar hybrid models of the Clarkdale family for desktop computers, and Arrandale for mobile ones. There is also a cheaper option - Lynnfield. The company's graphics solution in the Sandy Bridge CPU was quite weak. It was significantly inferior to similar developments from competitors - ARM or AMD Llano. Therefore, for the new Ivy Bridge CPUs, the graphics core architecture was changed, which improved its performance.
Thermal dissipation is a parameter that determines how hot the CPU gets during operation, called heat dissipation (TDP). Its unit of measurement is considered to be the watt. Based on the heat dissipation value, you can select the appropriate cooling system. For example, if the TDP of the CPU is 75 W, then the cooler should be chosen with the same power, or better even slightly higher.
For laptops and netbooks, heat dissipation should not exceed 45 W, because they do not have the ability to use bulky cooling systems. This characteristic is also taken into account in cases where a quieter system is selected that runs longer on battery power.
If you choose between identical models that have different heat dissipation, you should purchase the one with a lower value.
A set of specific commands aimed at increasing CPU performance is called a technology. For example, SSE4 technology includes 54 commands that improve the process of working with more serious programs. These include 3D modeling, powerful games, as well as processing audio and video files.
If you plan to use the above programs, then the selected central CPU must support such technologies.
In conclusion: AMD and Intel - which processor is better
Models from Intel are preferable to AMD because other internal components and some applications work more correctly with them, although in general Intel is more expensive than AMD. Objectively, for expensive devices the choice of an Intel-based system is more justified, and AMD is a good option for budget solutions. Intel also produces Atom series processors with a cache halved compared to Core, but Atom has its own advantages - lower power consumption. According to testing, when solving different types of tasks, different CPUs show different results: some work faster in games, others in multimedia applications. Therefore, the choice is made based on the needs of the owner.
Employees of simple offices work with light text and graphic editors, and also do a little surfing on the Internet. For them, it is enough to opt for modern, and not very expensive series. These include Pentium Dual-Core models from Intel or Phenom II X2 (AMD).
For home use, including modern games and watching videos in high definition, you will need a more powerful 2-core CPU with the highest possible clock speed. This can be Core i3 5xx, 6xx (Intel) or Phenom II X2 5xx (AMD).
When installing the most demanding games, you need to choose a 4-core CPU in a higher price category, for example, Core i5 750 (Intel) or Phenom II X4 95x.
If you run programs designed for professional 3D graphics or media applications, they are required to process a very large amount of data. For such purposes, it is recommended to select a model with at least 6 cores. Core i7 8xx, 9xx (Intel) or Phenom II X6 (AMD) models are suitable here.
Statement:
The higher the processor clock speed, the higher its performance.
The speed of processors has always been compared based on their leading and most understandable characteristic - clock frequency. The fashion for this was introduced in 1984 by IBM PC marketers, who claimed that the Intel 8088 processor in their computer was almost five times faster than the MOS Technology 6502 in clock frequency
from the Apple II - which means it's almost five times faster. Intel and Microsoft followed the same logic in the 90s, claiming that the Pentium was more productive than the PowerPC from Apple computers only because it had a higher clock speed. After AMD joined the race in the late 90s, the company had to introduce special markings that compared their processors with Intel processors. Most consumers were confident that clock speed was the main characteristic, and Intel, which relied on its growth, only supported them in this belief.
JOHN SPOONER
journalist
“After the release of Pentium III processors operating at frequencies up to 667 MHz, AMD may lose its leadership. Submitted
Athlon processors are running this month
with a maximum frequency of 650 MHz. But Intel's leadership won't last long. According to AMD representatives, they will release a processor with a frequency of 700 MHz by the end of the year.”
Why this is not true:
The time it takes to complete operations is more important than the clock speed.
It is correct to compare the clock frequency only
processors of the same model series with the same architecture. Although the frequency of the Intel 8088 was almost five times higher than that of the MOS Technology 6502, in fact, the same operation could take more clock cycles from the Intel 8088, which is why the advantage in frequency was leveled out. So it was
in the future: first Apple, and then AMD tried to expose the “myth of megahertz.” In 2006, Intel finally joined them, reaching the clock speed limit on the architecture it was then using in desktop processors, and changing the paradigm.
Today the number of operations that the processor performs
in one clock cycle, clock speed has never been more important. Case
is that the higher the frequency, the higher the heat generation,
and therefore the creators of mobile processors focus
for optimization, not dry numbers. The myth, however, goes nowhere
did not disappear, and even evolved: for example, many began to believe that the speed of a processor is proportional to the number of cores in it. Yes, and if you name the average person two processors with different clock frequencies, then he will still
by inertia it will choose the one with more megahertz.
CPU – central processing unit, or central processing device. It is an integrated circuit that executes machine instructions. Externally, a modern CPU looks like a small block about 4-5 cm in size with pin contacts on the bottom. Although it is customary to call this block, the integrated circuit itself is located inside this package and is a silicon crystal onto which electronic components are applied using lithography.
The top of the CPU housing serves to dissipate the heat generated by the billions of transistors. On the bottom there are contacts that are needed to connect the chip to the motherboard using a socket - a specific connector. The CPU is the most powerful part of the computer.
Clock frequency as an important parameter of processor operation, and what it affects
The performance of a processor is usually measured by its clock speed. This is the number of operations or clock cycles that the CPU can perform in a second. Essentially, the time it takes the processor to process information. The catch is that different CPU architectures and designs can perform operations in a different number of clock cycles. That is, one CPU for a certain task may need one clock cycle, and another - 4. Thus, the first one may turn out to be more efficient with a value of 200 MHz, versus the second with a value of 600 MHz.
That is, the clock frequency, in fact, does not fully determine the performance of the processor, which is usually positioned by many as such. But we are used to evaluating it based on more or less established norms. For example, for modern models the actual range in numbers is from 2.5 to 3.7 GHz, and often higher. Naturally, the higher the value, the better. However, this does not mean that there is not a processor on the market with a lower frequency, but which works much more efficiently.
Operating principle of a clock generator
All PC components operate at different speeds. For example, the system bus might be 100 MHz, the CPU might be 2.8 GHz, and the RAM might be 800 MHz. The baseline for the system is set by the clock generator.
Most often, modern computers use a programmable generation chip, which determines the value for each component separately. The principle of operation of the simplest clock pulse generator is to generate electrical pulses at a certain time interval. The most obvious example of using a generator is an electronic watch. By counting ticks, seconds are formed, from which minutes and then hours are formed. We will talk about what Gigahertz, Megahertz, etc. are a little later.
How the speed of a computer and laptop depends on the clock frequency
The processor frequency is responsible for the number of clock cycles a computer can execute in one second, which in turn reflects performance. However, do not forget that different architectures use different numbers of clock cycles to solve one problem. That is, “measuring by indicators” is relevant within at least one class of processors.
What is affected by the clock speed of a single-core processor in a computer and laptop?
Single-core CPUs are rarely found in nature anymore. But you can use them as an example. One processor core contains at least an arithmetic-logical unit, a set of registers, a couple of cache levels and a coprocessor.
The frequency with which all these components perform their tasks directly affects the overall performance of the CPU. But, again, with a relatively similar architecture and command execution mechanism.
What is affected by the number of cores in a laptop?
The CPU cores do not add up. That is, if 4 cores operate at 2 GHz, this does not mean that their total value is 8 GHz. Because tasks in multi-core architectures are executed in parallel. That is, a certain set of commands is distributed to the cores in parts, and after each execution a common response is generated.
In this way, a certain task can be completed faster. The whole problem is that not all software can work with multiple threads at the same time. That is, until now, most applications, in fact, use only one core. There are, of course, mechanisms at the operating system level that can parallelize tasks across different cores, for example, one application loads one core, another loads a second, etc. But this also requires system resources. But in general, optimized programs and games perform much better on multi-core systems.
How is processor clock speed measured?
The unit of measurement Hertz usually indicates the number of times periodic processes are executed in one second. This became the ideal solution for the units in which the processor clock frequency will be measured. Now the work of all chips began to be measured in Hertz. Well, now it’s GHz. Giga is a prefix indicating that it contains 1000000000 Hertz. Throughout the history of PCs, set-top boxes have changed frequently - KHz, then MHz, and now GHz is the most relevant. In CPU specifications you can also find English abbreviations - MHz or GHz. Such prefixes mean the same as in Cyrillic.
How to find out the processor frequency of your computer
For the Windows operating system, there are several simple methods, both standard and using third-party programs. The simplest and most obvious is to right-click on the “My Computer” icon and go to its properties. Next to the name of the CPU and its characteristics, its frequency will be indicated.
Among third-party solutions, you can use the small but well-known CPU-Z program. You just need to download, install and run it. In the main window it will show the current clock speed. In addition to this data, it displays a lot of other useful information.
CPU-Z program
Ways to increase productivity
In order to, there are two main ways: increase the multiplier and the system bus frequency. The multiplier is a coefficient showing the ratio of the base processor frequency to the base system bus.
It is factory set and can be either locked or unlocked in the end device. If it is possible to change the multiplier, it means that you can increase the frequency of the processor without making changes to the operation of other components. But in practice, this approach does not provide an effective increase, since the rest simply cannot keep up with the CPU. Changing the system bus indicator will lead to an increase in the values of all components: processor, RAM, north and south bridges. This is the easiest and most effective way to overclock a computer.
You can overclock a PC as a whole by increasing the voltage, which will increase the speed of the CPU transistors, and at the same time its frequency. But this method is quite complicated and dangerous for beginners. It is used mainly by people experienced in overclocking and electronics.
