The concept of communication and communication networks. Communication networks and styles
The connection between the source and the recipient, formalized in the form of certain fixed connections, is called a communication network. Communication networks assume the presence of various methods of communication between participants in the information process and are characterized by certain technical and structural interaction.
The emerging communication network system depends on:
Size of the organization;
Complexities of the production process;
Geographical location of the organization's structural divisions;
The qualifications of the manager and the attention he pays to the creation and successful functioning of communication networks.
The main ones for communication networks are:
Vertical communications:
○ downward (movement of information from managers to subordinates);
○ ascending (report of subordinates to management);
Horizontal links-communications (used to exchange information between production participants located at the same hierarchy level, and usually appear in the form of advisory information);
Diagonal connections-communications (arise, as a rule, between participants in the production process who are not in fixed formal relationships, and therefore in most cases are informal in nature).
Types of communication networks (according to V. R. Vesnin’s classification):
open(the movement of information can be stopped by reaching a dead end, i.e., to an element of the control structure located at the end of the channel, or by bumping into an “intermediary” (an intermediate link in the network that cannot be bypassed), and he has the ability to prevent this movement - stop, distort, direct in the other direction):
○ snake type networks;
○ star-type networks;
○ spur type networks;
○ tent-type networks;
○ tent-type networks;
○ home type networks;
closed(dead ends and “intermediaries” are either absent or can be bypassed, networks are based primarily on informal or semi-formal internal connections, “intermediaries” play the role of liaisons facilitating interaction between participants in these structures):
○ circle type networks;
○ wheel-type networks;
combined(combine both principles of construction and are characteristic mainly of large, multi-level organizations):
○ cell type networks.
The simplest type of open communication network is linear - type snake(Fig. 17.8).
Rice. 17.8. Schematic diagram of a type network snake
It is characterized by the fact that the elements of the management structure A And B, which it connects, are at dead ends, and the element IN not only acts as a communications intermediary, but can also control them. Such a network connects workers at the same level or is an element of a more complex network and is most often informal in nature.
Two- or more-level networks are primarily inherent in formal hierarchical structures and have a central link that serves as the starting point of vertical communication channels.
If the number of links belonging to the lower level of the management structure does not exceed the limits of controllability, the most suitable communication network for it is the type star(Fig. 17.9).
Rice. 17.9. Schematic diagram of a type network star
It allows you to quickly receive information and concentrate it in a central location A and send it to the performers as soon as possible B, IN, G. Zvenu A It is easy to maintain order in management here, since there are no intermediaries or informal channels in communications, which makes it impossible for various kinds of “disturbances” to arise.
However, for large management structures such a communication network is unsuitable; the most suitable for it is a communication network like spur(Fig. 17.10).
Rice. 17.10. Schematic diagram of a network type spur
Central link A is no longer able to independently develop all the decisions and bring them to the executors, so an intermediary appears B, specifying commands and distributing information among performers IN, G, D. Acting as a representative of the middle level of management and de jure playing secondary roles, de facto he receives enormous power, since he controls information and can impose his will on the first person.
In networks like star And spur the number of communication channels converging on a central element can, in practice, grow endlessly and eventually exceed the ability of one person to control them. This circumstance puts a natural limit on the development of management structures and, consequently, prevents the expansion of the organizations themselves, due to the growth in the scale of production.
Therefore, large, multidisciplinary functional structures are characterized by other communication networks, for example, awning and its modifications (Fig. 17.11).
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The essence of these options is the official assumption, along with vertical channels, of horizontal communication channels through which subordinates can directly independently solve many secondary problems, which allows management not to be distracted by them, but to focus on the main thing. Online tent one level of horizontal communication is allowed - between second parties; online house Such channels are possible at all levels of the management structure, which gives this type of network a closed character. The basis of closed networks is a network of the type circle(Fig. 17.12). In a large organization, this type of network can be complex, including additional communication channels connecting everyone to everyone (option II). It is characteristic of structures with a favorable moral and psychological climate, helps to unite people, facilitate the exchange of information and ideas, and stimulates creative processes. Option I Option II Rice. 17.12. Schematic diagram of a network type circle Coordination can be achieved using a communication network like wheel, in which there is a central subject that facilitates and accelerates the communication process (Fig. 17.13). Rice. 17.13. Schematic diagram of a type network wheel In large organizations it is possible to create a communication structure like honeycombs(Fig. 17.14). This is a combined network, essentially representing the unity of an open snakes and closed wheels or circle. Rice. 17.14. Schematic diagram of a type network honeycomb B.Z. Milner compared the effectiveness of some types of networks according to three fundamentally important indicators (Table 17.4): Table 17.4 Communication networks are not once and for all data and can change depending on changes in the tasks facing the organization, the volume of products produced and the internal management structure. |
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Communication conceptAndcommunicationnetworks
According to research, managers spend 50 to 90% of their time on communications. Communication is essential to the success of organizations. Effective leaders understand the essence of the communication process, have well-developed oral and written communication skills, and understand how the environment affects the exchange of information. Managers obtain the information they need both within the company and in the external environment, and then transform it and distribute it among those who need it.
Communication (from the Latin word “to make common, to connect”) is the process of transferring information from a source to a recipient with the goal of changing his knowledge, attitudes or overt behavior. Effective communication is important for success in management, since the solution of many management problems is based on the direct interaction of people (boss with subordinates, subordinates with each other) within the framework of different events, communication is the best way to discuss and resolve issues characterized by uncertainty.
The effectiveness of communication is influenced by factors such as communication skills, attitudes and experience, as well as the mental abilities of the subjects of communication, which form the specifics of their perception of the message and the emotional background.
Rice. 1. Communication process
There are six main variables in the interpersonal communication process: sender/encoder; message; channel; receiver/decoder; perception; Feedback.
The sender is responsible for wording the message in a way that accurately conveys the message to the recipient. The process of translating a thought into a message is called encoding.
Since communication is essentially a process of achieving understanding, it requires concerted effort on both sides to ensure that the meaning of the message is the same for the sender and the recipient. The sender's job is to find and use communication symbols and skills that will result in the message being correctly reflected in the recipient's mind.
A message is made up of verbal and non-verbal symbols that represent the information we want to convey. Every message we send is an attempt to convey a thought to the recipient.
Types of data that, individually or in any combination, can contain messages:
Facts, specific and objective data;
Ideas that are abstract and require proof of their objectivity;
Opinions, concrete or abstract, purporting to be objective or subjective;
Creeds, strongly held opinions, principles that are usually associated with people's awareness of themselves as individuals or the influence on them of everyday behavior;
Emotions, what the sender feels and expresses;
Motivation, transmitted energy that affects the recipient.
The process of translating a message into thought is called decoding, and this is the task of the recipient. How correctly the recipient will perceive the information depends on the following factors:
The recipient's knowledge of the topic of conversation;
The likelihood that the sender's message will be perceived appropriately;
Experience of communication between the sender and the recipient.
The recipient is described by two aspects of behavior: the ability to listen and the ability to provide feedback to the sender.
Perception represents our unique understanding of the essence of things. Perception is an indivisible component of communication from both the sender and the recipient.
In perception, each of us appears as a product of all our unique experiences. Our attitudes towards the environment also change our perception of what is communicated to us.
Feedback is the recipient's reaction to a message.
Feedback can be verbal or non-verbal; written or oral. Feedback provides guidance for the next message we send to the recipient. With feedback we can evaluate the effectiveness of our communication. Therefore, it is very important to master the skill of accurately interpreting feedback.
When there is feedback, the sender and receiver switch communication roles. The initial recipient becomes the sender and goes through all the stages of the information exchange process to transmit its response to the initial sender. Feedback can significantly improve the effectiveness of management information exchange. Two-way exchange of information, although slower, is more accurate and increases confidence in the correct interpretation of messages. Feedback improves the chances of effective information exchange by allowing both parties to eliminate interference.
The following difficulties in transmitting information are identified:
The threshold of the imagination of a person who puts his thoughts into verbal or other form for transmission to another person;
An active language filter that determines the differences between a “thought in the brain” and a “thought expressed”;
A language barrier that affects the volume and content of the message heard by the “receiver”;
Passive filter of imagination and desire, associated with the process of decoding perceived information and giving it meaning;
The volume of memorization, which, depending on the subjective value of information and the characteristics of the “receiver,” retains in his memory a certain image associated with the information.
Communicationnetworks
In organizations that employ more than two people, communication channels are combined into communication networks. Communication networks connect the elements of the management structure into a single whole, combining formal and informal communication channels, both duplicating and complementing each other. There are three types of communication networks : open, closed and combined .
IN open networks the movement of information can be stopped because it reaches an element of the control structure located at the end of the channel, it can also stumble upon a “mediator” or “controller” (an intermediate link in the communication network), which for some reason prevents this movement and which cannot be missed (Network type “Snake”, “Star”, “Spur”, “Tent”, “Tent”).
IN closed networks deadlocks and controllers are either missing or can be bypassed. (Network type “House”, “Circle”, “Wheel”).
Combined networks combine both principles of construction and are more characteristic of large multi-level organizations.
The simplest type of open communication network is the Snake network. The elements of the control structure A and B, which it connects, are at dead ends, and B plays the role of not only an intermediary of communications, but can control them. Such a network connects workers of the same management level, most often having an informal nature, or is an element of a more complex network.
Rice. 2. Snake network
communication communication network
Networks consisting of two or more levels have a central link that serves as the starting point of vertical communication channels. If the number of links belonging to the lower level of the hierarchy of the management structure does not exceed the control range, the most suitable communication network for it is the star. It allows you to quickly receive information, concentrate it in the central link A and send it to performers B, C, D in the shortest possible time.
Rice. 3. Star network
However, such a communication network is unsuitable for large management structures. Central link A is no longer able to independently develop all decisions and communicate them to the executors. He has an assistant (intermediary) B, who specifies commands and distributes information among performers B, D, E. Such a network is called “Spur”.
Rice. 4. Spur type network
In networks like the Star and Spur, the number of communication channels converging on a central element can, in practice, grow indefinitely and eventually exceed the ability of an individual to control them. Large multidisciplinary functional structures are characterized by other communication networks: “Tent”, “Tent”, “House”.
Rice. 5. "Tent" type network
Rice. 6. Tent type network
Rice. 7. Network type "Home"
In the "Tent" one level of horizontal communication is allowed - between second parties; in the “House” such channels are possible at all levels of the management structure, which gives it the character of a closed network.
Open communication structures are inherent in bureaucratic organizations, where there is a strict subordination of some links to others and formal connections predominate. However, within the framework of such organizations there can also be flexible structures - consultative and advisory, which are based primarily on informal or semi-formal internal connections and the principles of self-government. Communications here are carried out through closed networks, in which intermediaries play the role not of controllers, but of liaisons who facilitate interaction between participants in these structures.
The basis of closed networks is a “Circle” type network.
Rice. 8. Circle type network
“Circle” is typical for structures with a favorable moral and psychological climate. It helps bring people together and facilitate the exchange of information and ideas.
Often there is a need to coordinate activities; such coordination is ensured with the help of a “Wheel” type communication network, in which there is a central entity that facilitates and accelerates the communication process. However, this is not an administrator who gives orders, but a generally recognized leader who leads others.
Rice. 9. Wheel network
In large organizations, creative teams may be connected to each other, and then the communication structure takes the form of a honeycomb. This is a combined network, essentially representing the unity of an open “Snake” and a closed “Wheel” or “Circle”. The communication process already has its dead ends here, and liaison officers easily turn into controllers. If necessary, these dead ends can be overcome by closing the “Snake” itself using the “connecting link” principle, which will be discussed below.
Rice. 10. Cellular network
There are a number of difficulties in organizing communications: distortion of messages, information overload, unsatisfactory structure of information.
1. Distortion of messages:
Unintentional distortion occurs, as a rule, due to low professional suitability;
Filtration, that is, summation, generalization, during which distortion is possible;
Conscious distortion;
Status discrepancy (the desire to generate only positive information in order to gain approval);
Fear of punishment and a sense of security.
2. Information overload:
It is impossible to respond to all information;
The division into necessary and unnecessary, essential and unimportant, is quite subjective.
3. Unsatisfactory information structure:
Difficulty of control;
Lots of levels, lots of distortion.
The following points can be highlighted as ways to improve communication.
1. Management regulation:
Clear definition and formulation of tasks;
Forming a clear understanding of the information needs of the boss, yourself, and your subordinates;
Improve planning, implementation, control in the direction of improving information exchange;
Discussion of plans, tasks, ways to solve them.
2. Improving the feedback system:
Moving people from one organization to another for the purpose of discussion;
A survey of employees, as a result of which it is necessary to identify: whether the goals of their activities are clearly communicated to them, whether they are informed; what potential and real problems the strategies for future change face or may face; whether the manager receives them for suggestions.
3. Improving the information collection system in order to reduce the tendency for ideas to be filtered or ignored along the bottom-up path.
4. Creation of channels for information messages (wall prints, articles, newsletters, radio, television, etc.).
5. Introduction of modern information technologies (e-mail, video conferencing and others).
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A communication network is a connection of individuals participating in the communication process in a certain way using information flows. A communication network involves the flow of messages or signals between two or more individuals. The communication network focuses on the patterns of these flows developed in the organization, and not on whether the meaning or meaning of the message was successfully conveyed
The network created by the leader consists of vertical, horizontal and diagonal connections. Vertical connections are built along the line of leadership from boss to subordinates. Horizontal connections are carried out between individuals or parts of the organization of equal levels: between deputies, between heads of departments, between subordinates. Diagonal connections are connections with other superiors and subordinates. The network of these connections creates the real structure of the organization. The purpose of a formal organizational structure is to channel communication flows in the right direction. The size of departments in an organization limits the ability to develop a communication network. If the size of the group increases in arithmetic progression, then the number of possible communication relationships increases exponentially. Hence, the communication network in a group of 12 people is more diverse than in a group of three people.
There are well-established patterns of communication networks in organizations (groups), for the same or diverse numbers:
Groups of three
“Wheel” “All-channel” “Spinner”
Group of four
“Wheel” “Chain” “Omnichannel”
Group of five or more
"Wheel" "Y" "Circle" "Chain"
“Omnichannel” “Chain “X” “Alpha”
In circle networks (Figure 4), group members can only communicate with those located near them. In networks of the “wheel” type (Figures 2,3,4) a formal, centralized hierarchy of power is presented, in which subordinates communicate with each other through their boss. The objective basis of this situation is that the person at the center of the “wheel” has more communication connections than other members of the group. He receives more messages, is more often recognized by other group members as a person performing leadership functions, has more social influence on other group members, usually bears greater responsibility for transmitting information, and is expected to be the final solution to the problem more than others.
A similar picture is observed in “Y” type networks (Figure 4). Such networks are called centralized and can be effective if simple problems are solved. Another type of power hierarchy is represented by networks of the “chain” type, in which horizontal connections appear - elements of decentralization. “Omnichannel” (Figure 2,3,5) networks represent completely decentralized groups. This is usually required when everyone needs to be involved in solving a complex problem. This approach is also called open communications.
The nature of the interdependence of jobs and people in a group or organization will determine the type of communication network that is more effective. Simple interconnection allows for the use of centralized networks. Complex interdependence requires a “team” approach to building communication networks. However, a complex network may not solve a simple problem.
Communication network- this is the connection of individuals participating in the communication process in a certain way with the help of information flows. In this question, only the internal communication networks of the organization will be considered. It should be noted that communication networks form the communication substructure of an organization. In this case, we are not considering individuals as such, but communication relations between individuals. A communication network involves flows of messages or signals (communication channels) between two or more individuals. The communication network focuses on the patterns of these flows developed in the organization, and not on whether the meaning or meaning of the message was successfully conveyed. However, the communication network can influence the gap between the sent and received value to shorten or widen. Thus, depending on how communication networks are built, an organization’s activities may be more or less effective. Depending on the type of organization and the type of operating system, different types of communication networks are used. Thus, simple technologies (types of interaction) require clear power relations and centralized networks. Complex technologies require group work organization (team work) and appropriate communication networks. Thus, OSU, communication substructure, communication network are interrelated concepts. The network created by the leader also consists of vertical, horizontal and diagonal connections. The network of these connections creates the real structure of the organization. The purpose of a formal organizational structure is to channel communication flows in the right direction.
The size of departments in an organization limits the ability to develop a communication network. If the size of the group increases, then the number of possible communication relationships increases to an even greater extent. Hence, the communication network in a group of 10 people is more diverse and complex than in a group of 3 people.
Types of communication networks
In practice, three types of communication networks can be distinguished: open, closed and combined.
IN open networks the flow of information may be stopped; because it reaches a dead end, that is, to an element of the control structure located at the end of the channel.
IN closed In networks, dead ends are either absent or can be bypassed.
Combined networks combine both principles of construction and are inherent in larger multi-level organizations.
Let's take a closer look at each type of network, remembering that we are talking about their basic diagrams, and not about “portraits” of certain real organizations or divisions.
TO open networks include a snake-type network (chain), wheels and its varieties: star, Y-type network, spur; tent, etc. There are well-established patterns of communication networks for groups of the same size. We will consider groups of three, four and five people.
TO closed networks include circle, all-channel network, spinner. TO combined networks include, for example, honeycombs.
Wheel network
This type of network presents a formal, centralized hierarchy of power, in which subordinates communicate with each other through their superior. The objective basis of this situation is that the person at the center of the “wheel” has more communication connections than other members of the group. A similar picture is observed in “Y” type networks. Such networks are called centralized and can be effective if simple problems are solved. Network data is shown on rice. 13.
The advantage of networks of this type is that they allow you to quickly receive information, concentrate it in a central location, and send it to performers in the shortest possible time (provided that the range of control is taken into account). It is easy for the manager (central link) to maintain order in management, since there are no intermediaries. However, such a communication network is unsuitable for large management structures. The central link is no longer able to independently develop all decisions and communicate them to the executors. He has an assistant (intermediary) in networks such as “spur” and “Y”, who specifies commands and distributes information between performers.
In wheel-type networks, the number of communication channels converging on a central element can, in practice, grow indefinitely, and eventually exceed the ability of an individual to control them. Therefore, large structures are characterized by other communication networks, for example, awning(Fig.14).
Chain type network (snake)
Another type of power hierarchy is represented by networks of the “chain” type, in which horizontal connections appear - an element of decentralization. This network is characterized by the fact that it connects workers of the same management level, most often having an informal nature, or is an element of a more complex network, for example, a “tent” type network, which is a type of “tente”, but with the presence of horizontal connections between second parties.
In general, open communication structures are inherent in bureaucratic organizations, where there is a strict subordination of some links to others, and formal connections predominate. Such networks support power relations, facilitated by the centralization of information. However, within the framework of such organizations there can also be flexible structures - consultative and advisory (committees, commissions, special creative groups), which are based primarily on informal or semi-formal internal connections and the principles of self-government. Communications here are carried out through closed networks, in which intermediaries play the role not of controllers, but of liaisons who facilitate interaction between participants in these structures.
The basis of closed networks is a network of the type "circle"(Fig.16). In such networks, group members can only communicate with those located near them. In a large organization it can be complex, involving additional communication channels connecting everyone to everyone ( omnichannel networks). This is usually required when everyone needs to participate in solving complex problems, it is necessary to stimulate creative processes, which helps bring people together and facilitate the exchange of information and ideas. Omnichannel networks are completely decentralized ( rice. 16).
| 3 persons | 4 people | 5 people | |
| circle |  | ||
| omnichannel |  |  |  |
| pinwheel |  |  |
| Rice. 16. Closed communication networks |
In large organizations, creative groups can be connected to each other, then the communication structure takes the form of a “honeycomb”. This network is combined, representing the unity of a chain and a circle. (Fig. 17)
Conclusions on the topic
1. The communication process is a fundamental process of the organization’s functioning, on which the effectiveness of the entire management process depends. One of the conditions for effective management, in turn, is the communication substructure of the organization.
2. The communication substructure of an organization consists of communication networks. Thus, we can say that, by and large, the factors that determine the choice of OSU largely determine the type of the most effective communication network.
3. In general, three types of communication networks can be distinguished: open, closed and combined, each of which has its own advantages and disadvantages and areas of best use.
Questions for self-control
1. Give the concept of communication, communication process, communication substructure of management, communication network.
2. Give a classification of communications.
3. List and characterize the stages and key roles of the communication process.
4. Justify the importance of the communication process in the management of an organization.
5. Give the concept of a communication barrier, identify the causes of its occurrence, and justify ways to eliminate them.
6. Characterize each group of communication networks.
7. Identify the advantages and disadvantages of each communication network, justify the area of effective use.
End of work -
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Bibliography
1. Adamchuk V.V., Romashov O.V., Sorokin IE. Economics and sociology of labor. M.: "UNITY", 1999. 407 p. 2. Akulenok D., Burov V., Moroshkin V. and others. Business plan
MOSCOW HUMANITIES AND ECONOMICS INSTITUTE
NORTHWEST BRANCH
Faculty of Correspondence Studies
Department of Organization Management
Discipline Organization Theory
COURSE WORK
on the topic COMMUNICATION PROCESSES IN ORGANIZATIONS.
Performed by student Nosach E.V.
Group ES-3m-10
Head – Noritsyna O.V.
_____________________________
Protected
"___"_________________2012
Murmansk
ABOUT THE CHAPTER
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Concept of communication
1.2 Types of communication
1.3 Communication networks
Informal communication in the organization
1.5 Communication process
CHAPTER II. COMMUNICATION BARRIERS AND
WAYS TO OVERCOME THEM
2.1 Barriers to interpersonal communication
Improving the art of communication
2.3 Barriers to organizational communications
2.4 Ways to improve the effectiveness of communication in an organization
CONCLUSION
BIBLIOGRAPHY
INTRODUCTION
This work is about communication - something that everyone participates in every day, but few do in a consistent manner. It is almost impossible to overstate the importance of communication in management. Almost everything that managers do to help an organization achieve its goals requires effective communication. If people cannot exchange information, it is clear that they will not be able to work together, formulate goals and achieve them. However, as will become clear later, communication is a complex process consisting of interdependent steps. Each of these steps is very necessary in order to make our thoughts understandable to another person. Each step is a point at which, if we are careless and don't think about what we are doing, the meaning can be lost.
The purpose of the work is to provide insight into the nature and complexities of communications, the potential pitfalls in understanding messages, and what can be done to more effectively share information both among managers and beyond.
According to research, a manager spends 50 to 90% of his time on communications. This seems incredible, but it becomes understandable when you consider that the manager does this to realize his roles in interpersonal relationships, information exchange and decision-making processes, not to mention the management functions of planning, organizing, motivating and controlling. It is precisely because the exchange of information is built into all major types of management activities that communication is called a connecting process. Effective communications are essential to the success of individuals and organizations.
Although it is widely accepted that communication is critical to the success of organizations, surveys have shown that 73% of American, 63% of British and 85% of Japanese executives consider communication to be the main obstacle to their organizations' effectiveness. According to another survey of approximately 250,000 employees at 2,000 different companies, information sharing is one of the most difficult problems in organizations. These surveys show that ineffective communication is one of the main areas of concern. By deeply understanding communication at the personal and organizational levels, we must learn to reduce the incidence of ineffective communication and become better, more effective managers. Effective leaders are those who are effective communicators. They understand the essence of the communication process, have well-developed oral and written communication skills, and understand how the environment affects the exchange of information.
CHAPTER I. COMMUNICATIONS IN MANAGEMENT
General concept
Organization management is carried out through people. One of the most important management tools for a manager is to send signals or messages to his subordinates about their behavior necessary to achieve organizational goals. Using this and receiving feedback from subordinates, the manager organizes, motivates and leads subordinates. Much depends on the manager’s ability to effectively transmit and receive such signals and messages so that they are most adequately perceived by those for whom they are intended. Many managers understand the importance of this problem and pay great attention to it.
In the process of communication, signals or messages about behavior are transmitted from one subject to another and back. Subjects can be individuals, groups and organizations as a whole. In the first case, communication is interpersonal in nature and is carried out by conveying ideas, facts, opinions, hints, sensations or perceptions, feelings and attitudes from one person to another in verbal (oral or written) form, as well as non-verbal (postures, gestures, tone of voice , transmission time, etc.) form in order to obtain the desired response.
In the second and third cases we are talking about organizational communication, i.e. about how, by whom and when signals are sent in the context of groups and the organization (meetings, presentations, instructions and procedures, business documentation, orders and instructions, plans, etc.) and how feedback is received (observations; reports, evaluation and etc.). The communication links existing in an organization reflect its actual structure, and the task of top management in this case is to bring both into conformity. The discrepancy between the approved structure and the communication process existing in the organization significantly reduces the effectiveness of its activities.
It should be noted that communication and information are different (two concepts that are very often confused), but related concepts. Information is a natural and meaningful part of a sent or received signal or message, which makes it possible to give it a certain significance. Simply put, information is the internal interpretation of external events. For example, a cry of fear is such an interpretation of information that can even be measured in decibels.
Communication includes both what is communicated and how that “what” is communicated. In order for communication to take place interpersonally, there must be at least two people.
Communication places demands on each of the participants in management interaction. So, each of the participants must have all or some abilities: see, hear, touch, smell, taste, etc. Effective communication requires each party to have certain skills and abilities, as well as a certain degree of mutual understanding.
The term “communication” comes from the Latin “communis”, meaning “common”: the sender of signals or messages tries to establish “commonness” with the recipient. Hence, communication can be defined as the transfer of not just information, but meaning or meaning using symbols.
COMMUNICATION PROCESS
The above shows how information sharing extends across different parts of an organization and how it relates to organizational performance. You know, of course, that information sharing in organizations is not always as effective as it should be. In fact, people communicate with each other less effectively than they think.
This fact was illustrated by Rensis Likert when studying the work of foremen and their subordinates at one of the public service enterprises.
In addition, in many cases the transmitted message is misunderstood and, therefore, the exchange of information is ineffective. John Miner, a prominent management researcher, points out that, as a rule, only 50% of attempts to exchange information result in mutual agreement between the communicants. Most often, the reason for such low efficiency is forgetting the fact that communication is an exchange.
During the exchange, both parties play an active role. For example, if you, as a manager, describe to one of your subordinates how work needs to change, this is only the beginning of the exchange. For communication to be effective, your subordinate must communicate to you how he understands the task and your expectations for his performance. Information exchange occurs only when one party “offers” information and the other perceives it. For this to happen, close attention should be paid to the communication process.
COMMUNICATION PROCESS is the exchange of information between two or more people.
The main goal of the communication process is to ensure understanding of the information being exchanged, i.e. messages. However, the very fact of information exchange does not guarantee the effectiveness of communication between the people participating in the exchange. Of course, you yourself have encountered cases of ineffective information exchange with friends, family, and co-workers at work. To better understand the process of information exchange and the conditions for its effectiveness, it is necessary to understand the stages of the process in which two or more people participate.
Types of communication
There are several information flows - ascending, descending and horizontal. Each of them performs a specific function in the organization.
Downward information flow. The flow of communication moving from the top level in a group or organization to a lower level is downward. The most typical example of such a communication flow is the communication of a boss with his direct subordinates. This flow of communication performs the functions of transmitting orders, directions and instructions, as well as motivating and evaluating employees.
Orders and instructions become increasingly detailed and specific as they pass through and are interpreted by each intermediate level in the organizational hierarchy. Managers at each management level act as a kind of “filters” that regulate the amount of information passing through them from the top to the bottom of the organizational pyramid. In addition to orders and instructions, downward communication may include information about organizational goals, rules, restrictions, incentives, privileges, etc. It is also a feedback channel as subordinates receive feedback on how they are doing at their job.
Ascending information flow. Bottom-up information in organizations moves from lower to higher levels. The main function of upward communication is to provide management with information about the activities and mood of personnel at lower levels. This flow may include: progress reports, suggestions, recommendations, opinions, complaints and requests for support and assistance. Rising to higher levels of management, information is filtered, acquiring a compressed, generalized form. The most common means of upward communication are production meetings, written notes, and communication during office hours and by telephone. Some organizations also use questionnaires, regular meetings with staff and union representatives, interview workers leaving the organization, implement grievance systems, etc.
Horizontal information flows. When communication occurs among members of the same group, among managers or personnel at the same level, then such a communication process is called horizontal. This process is necessary because it saves time and ensures coordination of actions. In some cases, such communication is formal and obligatory, in others it occurs spontaneously.
Communication at the horizontal level is the exchange of information between people who are at the same hierarchical levels. This type also includes communication between people at different management levels, but not directly subordinate (so-called diagonal communication).
Horizontal communication is most common among workers working in the same group and among members of different groups performing interdependent tasks. The structure of horizontal communication is closely related to production processes within the organization.
The main function of horizontal communication is to coordinate and solve current problems. Such communication is faster and more effective than interaction through formal hierarchical relationships. For example, if two foremen coordinate with management every step of their cooperation with an adjacent team (work group), then such coordination will require the participation of all levels of management, and, of course, a long time. If they are constantly dealing with related issues and need to make urgent decisions, direct horizontal communication will be essential. Of course, direct interaction does not exclude regular information to management about the current activities of the working group.
Horizontal communication flows in an organization, as a rule, are much busier than vertical ones. One reason is that people are more willing to speak freely and openly with peers than with management.
Horizontal exchange of information in this case is less susceptible to distortion, since employees of the same level have more often the same views. Moreover, the content of horizontal messages is mainly of a coordination nature, while that of vertical messages, going from top to bottom, is of an orderly nature. Messages moving from the bottom up contain mainly information about production activities at the executive level.
Organizational structures tend to make it difficult for horizontal flows of information to function between individuals in different departments. Messages are expected to move up the hierarchy to a boss common to both departments and then downward. Naturally, this slows down the speed of horizontal messages. Fayol defended the idea of specially designed mechanisms for lateral communication in organizations, noting that there were many activities whose success depended on their rapid execution, and that it was necessary to find ways to combine due respect for hierarchical channels with satisfying the need for rapid action.
The benefits of horizontal communication lie in the formation of equal relationships. It has been proven that such relationships are an important component of employee satisfaction in an organization.
Communication “Leader – Subordinate”. Perhaps the most obvious component of communication in an organization is the relationship between manager and subordinate. Although they provide an example of the vertical information exchange discussed above, we consider this type of information exchange separately because it constitutes a major part of the manager's communication activities. Research has shown that 2/3 of this activity is carried out between managers and managed.
Some of the many types of communication between a manager and a subordinate involve clarifying objectives, priorities and expected results; ensuring involvement in solving department problems; with a discussion of work efficiency problems; achieving recognition and rewards for the purpose of motivation; improving and developing the abilities of subordinates; with collecting information about an emerging or real-life problem; notifying a subordinate about an upcoming change; and receiving information about ideas, improvements and suggestions.
Communication between the leader and the work group. In addition to the exchange of information between a leader and a subordinate, there is an exchange between the leader and his work group. Communication with the work group as a whole allows the leader to increase the effectiveness of the group's actions. Since all members of the group participate in the exchange, everyone has the opportunity to reflect on new tasks and priorities of the department, how they should work together, upcoming changes and their possible consequences for this and other departments, recent problems and achievements, and proposals for improvement. .
In addition, sometimes a work group meets without leaders to discuss problems, improvements, or impending changes. As stated above, such equality relationships can help improve employee job satisfaction.
Informal communications. Organizations are made up of formal and informal components. The channel of informal communications can be called a channel for spreading rumors. Keith Davis, a renowned scholar whose views on communications form the basis of this chapter, has traced the term's origins to the American Civil War. Telegraph wires, stretched from tree to tree, resembled grapevine shoots and were widely used by the armies of the North and South. Messages transmitted via such telegraphs were often falsified and confused. Eventually it became common to classify inaccurate reports and information as “rumours” (passed through a secret reporting system).
Rumors "float around the water dispensers, in the hallways, in the cafeterias, and anywhere else people gather in groups." Since information is transmitted much faster through rumor channels than through formal communication channels, managers use the former for planned leaks and dissemination of certain information or information of the “just between us” type.
The reputation of inaccurate information attributed to rumors continues to this day. However, research shows that information transmitted through informal communication channels, e.g. rumors often turn out to be accurate rather than distorted. According to Davis' research, 80-99% of rumors are accurate in terms of consistent information about the company itself. He believes, however, that the level of accuracy may not be as high when it comes to personal or highly emotional information. Davis points out: “People tend to regard rumors as less accurate information because the actual errors are more dramatic and therefore more deeply imprinted in the memory than everyday routine accuracy.” Moreover, regardless of accuracy, "everything points to the influence of rumors, whether their impact is positive or negative."
Typical information conveyed through rumor channels: upcoming layoffs of production workers, new penalties for lateness, changes in the structure of the organization, upcoming moves and promotions, a detailed account of the dispute between two managers at the last sales meeting, who gives whom after-work dates, etc. .d.
Types of communication networks
The communication network influences both organizational performance, organizational processes (e.g., leadership), and organizational climate (e.g., communication satisfaction).
Early research in organizational communication focused on comparing centralized and decentralized networks.
A centralized network is a network in which communication among group members is limited to a few channels, and the main flow of information passes through a key position in the network (Figure 1).
Rice. 1. Examples of centralized communication networks
In such networks, the person occupying a central position in the group has preferential access to information and controls its distribution. In fact, this individual acts as a subject of information power and has great grounds for being the leader of the group, playing a major role in decision-making and being responsible for them. This person's satisfaction with their communication is also likely to be higher than that of workers on the periphery of communication flows.
In a decentralized network, a greater number of information channels are available to all group members, and no one has preferential access or a monopoly on information (Figure 2).
Rice. 2. Examples of decentralized communication networks
A cross-ring communication network is the most decentralized because it allows each group member to communicate directly with all other employees. In decentralized networks, decision-making responsibility is largely distributed among group members. The number of messages exchanged will be greater, and group members will experience greater satisfaction with both communication and the activities performed.
The effectiveness of different networks depends on the nature of the activity being performed. Centralized networks enable rapid exchange of messages with fewer errors in simple, structured problems that have a unique correct solution that can be found by systematic analysis of available information and the use of available experience. In situations with complex, unstructured problems and multiple possible solutions, teams that have decentralized communication networks do better. Decentralized networks allow greater use of the knowledge and skills of all group members. There is more opportunity for feedback and correction, for synthesizing diverse ideas and perspectives. In addition, decentralized networks are less dependent on the individual characteristics of the individual worker and suffer less from information overload than centralized ones. In them, even when solving complex problems, information is distributed fairly evenly, and does not fall on the individual occupying a central position in the network. When the central person controlling the information flow is overloaded, the quality of management decisions decreases sharply, since they are often based on irrelevant information.
Organizational communication and communication networks have been intensively studied both in laboratory and field conditions, unfortunately, the results of laboratory research are not always applicable in real conditions, where communication rarely follows formalized channels and instructions of the experimenter, developing in accordance with the requirements of the current situation. In those studies where groups had the time and opportunity to independently change the initial communication network, their communication became more and more appropriate to the task at hand.
In the field, researchers have attempted to identify groups of workers (such as cliques or coalitions) that communicate most frequently and regularly with each other, and to identify the roles of individuals in organizational communication, such as “stars,” “rogues,” or “rumor mongers.” " In this case, the main indicator was the frequency of interactions in dyads. The structure of organizational communication revealed as a result of such research is superimposed on the formal organizational structure, allowing us to compare how much the real communication network coincides with the formal one. In addition, the network of organizational communication can be compared with the system of official authority, the implementation of production tasks, the system of informal relations, etc. The use of computer analysis methods has significantly expanded the prospects of these studies.
One field study compared communication networks in the manufacturing and research divisions of a large corporation. The research unit's mission was to develop and evaluate new process equipment with a wide range of applications. The production division was engaged in the production of serial products. As expected, given the complex, unstructured nature of the work performed, the research division had a decentralized and much more extensive communication network, covering almost all divisions of the corporation and even specialists from universities and other companies. At the same time, communication most often was not regulated by the management of the unit, but was of a direct nature. These contacts were important sources of new information and original ideas. The production division had a more centralized and less developed communication network with other divisions, clearly limited to specific production tasks (supply, marketing, sales, etc.). At the same time, almost all external communication channels passed through the head of the department.
Related information.
