What is processor clock speed (CPU)? What is processor clock speed

Then the clock frequency is the most well-known parameter. Therefore, it is necessary to specifically understand this concept. Also, within the framework of this article, we will discuss understanding the clock speed of multi-core processors, because there are interesting nuances that not everyone knows and takes into account.

For quite a long time, developers relied on increasing the clock frequency, but over time, the “fashion” has changed and most of the developments go towards creating a more advanced architecture, increasing cache memory and developing multi-cores, but no one forgets about the frequency.

What is the processor clock speed?

First you need to understand the definition of “clock frequency”. The clock speed tells us how many calculations the processor can perform per unit time. Accordingly, the higher the frequency, the more operations the processor can perform per unit time. The clock speed of modern processors is generally 1.0-4 GHz. It is determined by multiplying the external or base frequency by a certain coefficient. For example, the Intel Core i7 920 processor uses a bus speed of 133 MHz and a multiplier of 20, resulting in a clock speed of 2660 MHz.

The processor frequency can be increased at home by overclocking the processor. There are special processor models from AMD and Intel, which are aimed at overclocking by the manufacturer itself, for example, the Black Edition from AMD and the K-series line from Intel.

I would like to note that when buying a processor, frequency should not be the decisive factor in your choice, because only part of the processor’s performance depends on it.

Understanding clock speed (multi-core processors)

Now, in almost all market segments there are no longer single-core processors left. Well, it’s logical, because the IT industry does not stand still, but is constantly moving forward by leaps and bounds. Therefore, you need to clearly understand how the frequency is calculated for processors that have two or more cores.

While visiting many computer forums, I noticed that there is a common misconception about understanding (calculating) the frequencies of multi-core processors. I’ll immediately give an example of this incorrect reasoning: “There is a 4-core processor with a clock frequency of 3 GHz, so its total clock frequency will be equal to: 4 x 3 GHz = 12 GHz, right?” - No, not so.

I will try to explain why the total processor frequency cannot be understood as: “number of cores X specified frequency."

Let me give you an example: “A pedestrian is walking along the road, his speed is 4 km/h. This is similar to a single-core processor on N GHz. But if 4 pedestrians are walking along the road at a speed of 4 km/h, then this is similar to a 4-core processor on N GHz. In the case of pedestrians, we do not assume that their speed will be 4x4 = 16 km/h, we simply say: "4 pedestrians walk at a speed of 4 km/h". For the same reason, we do not perform any mathematical operations with the frequencies of the processor cores, but simply remember that a 4-core processor is N GHz has four cores, each of which operates at a frequency N GHz".

What is processor clock speed? What does this characteristic affect and in what ways can it be increased? What is the maximum processor clock speed? We will examine these questions in the course of this article.

The concept of clock frequency

The processor clock speed is one of the most important parameters characterizing a personal computer, as well as all other devices built on its principle. That is, not only personal computers, but also laptops, netbooks, ultrabooks, tablet computers and smartphones have their own processor clock speed.

Processor clock speed is a setting applied to the individual devices that make up a computer system. More specifically, we are talking about the processor. In fact, a lot depends on the processor clock speed, but this is not the only detail that affects the operation of the system.

So, to understand the question of clock frequency, let's first delve a little deeper into word formation. What is “tact” and what does this word have to do with our case? A beat is nothing more than the period of time that occurs between the repetition of two impulses. These pulses, in turn, are created by a device called a “clock generator.” Essentially, this is a chip that is responsible for generating the clock speed used by the motherboard and the processor itself. That is, the processor clock frequency is the frequency at which the device operates.

Operating principle of the gas turbine unit

The clock generator creates pulses that are subsequently sent throughout the device. They speed up the computer architecture, simultaneously creating synchronization between individual elements. That is, the GTC is a kind of “commander” who connects the working computer links into one sequence. So, the more often the clock frequency generator creates pulses, the better performance the computer/laptop/smartphone will have, and so on.

It is logical to assume that if there is no clock generator, then there will be no synchronization between the elements. Therefore, the device will not be able to operate. Let's assume that somehow we managed to bring such a device to life. So what's next? All parts of the computer will operate at different frequencies at different times. And what is the result? As a result, the speed of the computer decreases by tens, hundreds, or even thousands of times. Does anyone really need such a device? This is the role of the clock generator.

What is clock speed measured in?

Clock frequency, according to international standards, is usually measured in both megahertz and gigahertz. Both types of measurements are correct; rather, it is simply a matter of the appearance of the console and the number of characters. The designations for the two measurements are, respectively, “MHz” and “GHz”. Let us remind those who forgot, and tell those who did not know, that 1 MHz is numerically equal to a million clock cycles performed within one second. And gigahertz is 3 degrees more. That is, it is a thousand megahertz. Computer technologies do not stand still, like all others. They can be said to be developing dynamically, so we can voice the assumption that in the near future there may be a processor whose clock frequency will be measured not in megahertz or gigahertz, but in terahertz. This is another 3 degrees more.

What does processor clock speed affect?

As you know, a computer, ranging from simple accounts to the latest games, performs a certain set of operations. Which, by the way, can be quite impressive. So, these operations are performed in a certain number of cycles. Therefore, the higher the clock speed of the processor, the faster it will be able to cope with tasks. And at the same time, performance increases, calculations and data loading in various applications are accelerated.

About the maximum clock speed

It's no secret that before a processor model is released into mass production, its prototype is tested. Moreover, they test with sufficient load to identify weak points and improve them somewhat.

Processor testing is carried out at different clock frequencies. At the same time, other conditions such as pressure and temperature also change. Why are tests carried out? They are organized not only to identify and eliminate faults and problems, but also to obtain a value called the maximum clock frequency. It is usually indicated in the device documentation, as well as in its labeling. The maximum clock speed is nothing more than the normal clock speed that the processor will have under standard conditions.

About the possibility of adjustment

In general, modern computer motherboards allow the user to change the clock frequency. Of course, this is done in one range or another. Technology now allows processors to operate at different frequencies depending on the choice. And this, I must say, is important, since such a processor can synchronize its frequency with the frequency of the motherboard, since the processor itself is installed on it.

About increasing the clock frequency

Of course, the maximum result can be achieved by simply purchasing a new processor with an increased clock frequency. However, this is not always financially possible, which means that the question of how to increase the processor clock speed without investing additional funds in this matter remains open.

In a nutshell, overclocking a processor is not done through third-party programs. This, as in the case of overclocking a video card, is outright nonsense. In fact, you can improve the performance of the processor by setting the appropriate settings in the BIOS.

Conclusion

So, what did we find out during this article? Firstly, the processor clock speed is the frequency at which the device operates. Secondly, computers use a clock frequency generator, which creates a certain frequency that synchronizes the operation of individual elements. Thirdly, the maximum processor frequency is the frequency at which the processor operates under normal conditions. Fourthly, overclocking the processor, that is, increasing its clock frequency, is possible by changing the settings in the BIOS.

The clock speed of Intel processors, like processors of other brands, depends on the model.

Many owners of computers with modern processors notice that the clock speed of their processor changes over time. Sometimes the frequency jumps to the maximum value characteristic of a given model (for example, up to 3000 MHz), and sometimes it drops to 1500 or even 800 MHz. Observing such jumps, users wonder why this happens and how to fix the clock frequency at the maximum value.

If you observe jumps in the processor clock speed while the computer is idle, then this is quite normal. This is an energy saving mechanism. When there is no load, the system lowers the processor multiplier, which leads to a decrease in the processor clock speed. Typically, the clock frequency is reduced to 1500 or 800 MHz, after which the computer runs at this frequency until there is a noticeable load on the processor. When a load appears, the clock frequency jumps back to its normal values.

Below are screenshots from the CPU-Z program. There you can see how the frequency of the Intel Core i5 2310 processor jumps between 1600 MHz and 3100 MHz.

Also in the CPU-Z program you can observe how the processor multiplier changes.

Reducing the clock frequency allows you to reduce the energy consumption of the processor, which in turn significantly reduces the overall energy consumption of the computer, because the processor is one of the most power-hungry components of a modern computer.

In addition to directly saving energy, this behavior of the system allows you to reduce the temperature of the processor, which in turn allows you to reduce fan speeds and reduce the noise level produced by the computer.

If desired, the user can fix the processor clock frequency at the maximum value. To do this, you need to edit the power supply scheme used in the operating system. For example, in Windows, to do this you need to go to “Control Panel\Hardware and Sound\Power Options” and click on the “Configure power plan” link, which is located opposite the active scheme.

This will take you to additional power plan settings. Here you need to open the “Processor power management” section and in the “Minimum processor state” field specify a value of 100 percent.

After applying the settings, the processor will start operating at its maximum clock speed.

CPU clock speed jumps under load

Under load, the clock frequency can also change. In this case, this is the result of Turbo Boost technology. This technology is designed to automatically overclock the processor to frequencies above standard. The activity of such auto-overclocking depends on the load on the processor. With a single-threaded load, Turbo Boost causes clock speeds to rise noticeably higher than with a multi-threaded load, this can lead to slight jumps in the processor clock speed. For example, for a Core i5-2500 processor under load, Turbo Boost can change the clock frequency ranging from 3700 MHz (with a load on one core) to 3400 MHz (with a load on all 4 cores).

If you experience significant spikes in processor frequency under load, such as jumps of 1000 MHz or more, then this may be a sign of a computer malfunction. In this case, it's worth checking. When the processor overheats, so-called “throttling” may begin. This is a reduction in clock speed to reduce processor temperature.

It should be noted that processor throttling can occur not only as a result of overheating of the processor itself, but also when its power circuits overheat. This can happen, for example, when overclocking a processor on a budget motherboard.

When you purchase or assemble a desktop computer, you may find out that one of the most expensive parts will be the processor. A processor is an electronic unit or circuit that executes machine instructions and is one of the main pieces of computer hardware.

The processor has many different parameters, one of which is called clock speed. What it is?

The processor clock frequency is the frequency of clock pulses of a synchronous electronic circuit that arrive from outside to the input of the circuit in one second. In other words, this is the number of operations that the processor performs in one second. At the same time, it is important not to forget that processors with the same clock frequency can have different performance, so different systems require different numbers of clock cycles to perform one operation.

Clock speed is measured in frequency units - megahertz and gigahertz.

It is believed that the higher the value, the more productive the processor itself. This is partly true, but only for models in the same manufacturer line. After all, processor performance is also influenced by other characteristics, for example, bus frequency or cache size. Some manufacturers allow you to “overclock” the processor clock speed.

By the way, an interesting point. As you know, single-core processors are not so common today; their place has been replaced by multi-core processors. However, this is not surprising, but that is not what we are talking about. Many people ask how the clock speed of multi-core processors is calculated? Some users believe that it is enough to multiply the clock speed by the number of processor cores. That is, if an 8-core processor has a frequency of 3 GHz, then you need to multiply 8 by 3 and get a frequency of as much as 24 GHz. In fact, this calculation has nothing to do with reality.

To understand the principle of calculating the clock frequency, you need to consider a simple example. Let's say we have a car that reaches 200 km per hour (that is, a single-core processor). If we take 4 of these cars (4-core processor), then no matter how hard we try, we will not be able to accelerate these cars to a speed of 800 km per hour under any desire. The same is with the clock frequency - if it is 3 GHz, then the 4-core processor has a frequency of the same 3 GHz.

* There are always pressing questions about what you should pay attention to when choosing a processor, so as not to make a mistake.

Our goal in this article is to describe all the factors affecting processor performance and other operational characteristics.

It's probably no secret that the processor is the main computing unit of a computer. You could even say – the most important part of the computer.

It is he who processes almost all processes and tasks that occur in the computer.

Be it watching videos, music, Internet surfing, writing and reading in memory, processing 3D and video, games. And much more.

Therefore, to choose C central P processor, you should treat it very carefully. It may happen that you decide to install a powerful video card and a processor that does not correspond to its level. In this case, the processor will not reveal the potential of the video card, which will slow down its operation. The processor will be fully loaded and literally boiling, and the video card will wait its turn, working at 60-70% of its capabilities.

That is why, when choosing a balanced computer, Not costs neglect the processor in favor of a powerful video card. The processor power must be enough to unleash the potential of the video card, otherwise it’s just wasted money.

Intel vs. AMD

*catch up forever

Corporation Intel, has enormous human resources and almost inexhaustible finances. Many innovations in the semiconductor industry and new technologies come from this company. Processors and developments Intel, on average by 1-1,5 years ahead of the engineers' achievements AMD. But as you know, you have to pay for the opportunity to have the most modern technologies.

Processor pricing policy Intel, is based both on number of cores, amount of cache, but also on "freshness" of architecture, performance per clockwatt,chip process technology. The meaning of cache memory, the “subtleties of the technical process” and other important characteristics of the processor will be discussed below. For the possession of such technologies as well as a free frequency multiplier, you will also have to pay an additional amount.

Company AMD, unlike the company Intel, strives for the availability of its processors for the end consumer and for a competent pricing policy.

One could even say that AMD– « People's stamp" In its price tags you will find what you need at a very attractive price. Usually a year after the company has a new technology Intel, an analogue of technology appears from AMD. If you are not chasing the highest performance and pay more attention to the price tag than to the availability of advanced technologies, then the company's products AMD– just for you.

Price policy AMD, is based more on the number of cores and very little on the amount of cache memory and the presence of architectural improvements. In some cases, for the opportunity to have third-level cache memory, you will have to pay a little extra ( Phenom has a 3 level cache memory, Athlon content with only limited, level 2). But sometimes AMD spoils his fans possibility to unlock cheaper processors to more expensive ones. You can unlock the cores or cache memory. Improve Athlon before Phenom. This is possible thanks to the modular architecture and the lack of some cheaper models, AMD simply disables some blocks on the chip of more expensive ones (software).

Cores– remain practically unchanged, only their number differs (true for processors 2006-2011 years). Due to the modularity of its processors, the company does an excellent job of selling rejected chips, which, when some blocks are turned off, become a processor from a less productive line.

The company has been working for many years on a completely new architecture under the code name Bulldozer, but at the time of release in 2011 year, the new processors did not show the best performance. AMD I blamed the operating systems for not understanding the architectural features of dual cores and “other multithreading.”

According to company representatives, you should wait for special fixes and patches to experience the full performance of these processors. However, at the beginning 2012 year, company representatives postponed the release of an update to support the architecture Bulldozer for the second half of the year.

Processor frequency, number of cores, multi-threading.

During times Pentium 4 and before him - CPU frequency, was the main processor performance factor when selecting a processor.

This is not surprising, because processor architectures were specially developed to achieve high frequencies, and this was especially reflected in the processor Pentium 4 on architecture NetBurst. High frequency was not effective with the long pipeline that was used in the architecture. Even Athlon XP frequency 2GHz, in terms of productivity was higher than Pentium 4 c 2.4 GHz. So it was pure marketing. After this error, the company Intel realized my mistakes and returned to the side of good I started working not on the frequency component, but on performance per clock. From architecture NetBurst I had to refuse.

What same for us gives multi-core?

Quad-core processor with frequency 2.4 GHz, in multi-threaded applications, will theoretically be the approximate equivalent of a single-core processor with a frequency 9.6 GHz or 2-core processor with frequency 4.8 GHz. But that's only in theory. Practically However, two dual-core processors in a two-socket motherboard will be faster than one 4-core processor at the same operating frequency. Bus speed limitations and memory latency take their toll.

* subject to the same architecture and amount of cache memory

Multi-core makes it possible to perform instructions and calculations in parts. For example, you need to perform three arithmetic operations. The first two are executed on each of the processor cores and the results are added to the cache memory, where the next action can be performed with them by any of the free cores. The system is very flexible, but without proper optimization it may not work. Therefore, optimization for multi-cores is very important for processor architecture in an OS environment.

Applications that "love" and use multithreading: archivers, video players and encoders, antiviruses, defragmenter programs, graphic editor, browsers, Flash.

Also, “lovers” of multithreading include such operating systems as Windows 7 And Windows Vista, as well as many OS kernel based Linux, which work noticeably faster with a multi-core processor.

Most games, sometimes a 2-core processor at a high frequency is quite enough. Now, however, more and more games are being released that are designed for multi-threading. Take at least these SandBox games like GTA 4 or Prototype, in which on a 2-core processor with a frequency lower 2.6 GHz– you don’t feel comfortable, the frame rate drops below 30 frames per second. Although in this case, most likely the reason for such incidents is “weak” optimization of games, lack of time or “indirect” hands of those who transferred games from consoles to PC.

When buying a new processor for gaming, you should now pay attention to processors with 4 or more cores. But still, you should not neglect 2-core processors from the “upper category”. In some games, these processors sometimes feel better than some multi-core ones.

Processor cache memory.

is a dedicated area of the processor chip in which intermediate data between processor cores, RAM and other buses is processed and stored.

It runs at a very high clock speed (usually at the frequency of the processor itself), has very high bandwidth and the processor cores work directly with it ( L1).

Because of her shortage, the processor can be idle in time-consuming tasks, waiting for new data to arrive in the cache for processing. Also cache memory serves for records of frequently repeated data, which, if necessary, can be quickly restored without unnecessary calculations, without forcing the processor to waste time on them again.

Performance is also enhanced by the fact that the cache memory is unified, and all cores can equally use data from it. This provides additional opportunities for multi-threaded optimization.

This technique is now used for Level 3 cache. For processors Intel there were processors with unified level 2 cache memory ( C2D E 7***,E 8***), thanks to which this method appeared to increase multi-threaded performance.

When overclocking a processor, the cache memory can become a weak point, preventing the processor from being overclocked beyond its maximum operating frequency without errors. However, the plus is that it will run at the same frequency as the overclocked processor.

In general, the larger the cache memory, the faster CPU. In which applications exactly?

All applications that use a lot of floating point data, instructions, and threads make heavy use of the cache memory. Cache memory is very popular archivers, video encoders, antiviruses And graphic editor etc.

A large amount of cache memory is favorable games. Especially strategies, auto-simulators, RPGs, SandBox and all games where there are a lot of small details, particles, geometry elements, information flows and physical effects.

Cache memory plays a very important role in unlocking the potential of systems with 2 or more video cards. After all, some part of the load falls on the interaction of processor cores, both among themselves and for working with streams of several video chips. It is in this case that the organization of cache memory is important, and a large 3rd level cache memory is very useful.

Cache memory is always equipped with protection against possible errors ( ECC), if detected, they are corrected. This is very important, because a small error in the memory cache, when processed, can turn into a gigantic, continuous error that will crash the entire system.

Proprietary technologies.

(hyper-threading, HT)–

the technology was first used in processors Pentium 4, but it didn’t always work correctly and often slowed down the processor more than it speeded it up. The reason was that the pipeline was too long and the branch prediction system was not fully developed. Used by the company Intel, there are no analogues of the technology yet, unless you consider it an analogue? what the company’s engineers implemented AMD in architecture Bulldozer.

The principle of the system is that for each physical core, one two computing threads, instead of one. That is, if you have a 4-core processor with HT (Core i 7), then you have virtual threads 8 .

The performance gain is achieved due to the fact that data can enter the pipeline already in the middle of it, and not necessarily at the beginning. If some processor blocks capable of performing this action are idle, they receive the task for execution. The performance gain is not the same as that of real physical cores, but comparable (~50-75%, depending on the type of application). It is quite rare that in some applications, HT negatively affects for performance. This is due to poor optimization of applications for this technology, the inability to understand that there are “virtual” threads and the lack of limiters for the load of threads evenly.

TurboBoost – a very useful technology that increases the operating frequency of the most used processor cores, depending on their load level. It is very useful when the application does not know how to use all 4 cores and loads only one or two, while their operating frequency increases, which partially compensates for performance. The company has an analogue of this technology AMD, is technology Turbo Core.

, 3 dnow! instructions. Designed to speed up the processor in multimedia computing (video, music, 2D/3D graphics, etc.), and also speed up the work of programs such as archivers, programs for working with images and video (with the support of instructions from these programs).

3dnow! – quite old technology AMD, which contains additional instructions for processing multimedia content, in addition to SSE first version.

*Specifically, the ability to stream process single-precision real numbers.

Having the latest version is a big plus; the processor begins to perform certain tasks more efficiently with proper software optimization. Processors AMD have similar names, but slightly different.

* Example - SSE 4.1(Intel) - SSE 4A(AMD).

In addition, these instruction sets are not identical. These are analogues with slight differences.

Cool'n'Quiet, SpeedStep CoolCore Enchanted Half State(C1E) AndT. d.

These technologies, at low loads, reduce the processor frequency by reducing the multiplier and core voltage, disabling part of the cache, etc. This allows the processor to heat up much less, consume less energy, and make less noise. If power is needed, the processor will return to its normal state in a split second. On standard settings Bios They are almost always turned on; if desired, they can be disabled to reduce possible “freezes” when switching in 3D games.

Some of these technologies control the rotation speed of fans in the system. For example, if the processor does not need increased heat dissipation and is not loaded, the processor fan speed is reduced ( AMD Cool'n'Quiet, Intel Speed Step).

Intel Virtualization Technology And AMD Virtualization.

These hardware technologies make it possible, using special programs, to run several operating systems at once, without any significant loss in performance. It is also used for the proper operation of servers, because often more than one OS is installed on them.

Execute Disable Bit AndNo eXecute Bit – technology designed to protect a computer from virus attacks and software errors that can cause the system to crash through buffer overflow.

Intel 64 , AMD 64 , EM 64 T – this technology allows the processor to work both in an OS with a 32-bit architecture and in an OS with a 64-bit architecture. System 64 bit– from the point of view of benefits, for the average user it differs in that this system can use more than 3.25GB of RAM. On 32-bit systems, use b O A larger amount of RAM is not possible due to the limited amount of addressable memory*.

Most applications with 32-bit architecture can be run on a system with a 64-bit OS.

* What can you do if back in 1985, no one could even think about such gigantic, by the standards of that time, volumes of RAM.

Additionally.

A few words about.

This point is worth paying close attention to. The thinner the technical process, the less energy the processor consumes and, as a result, the less it heats up. And among other things, it has a higher safety margin for overclocking.

The more refined the technical process, the more you can “wrap” in a chip (and not only) and increase the capabilities of the processor. Heat dissipation and power consumption are also reduced proportionally, due to lower current losses and a reduction in core area. You can notice a tendency that with each new generation of the same architecture on a new technological process, energy consumption also increases, but this is not the case. It’s just that manufacturers are moving towards even greater productivity and are stepping beyond the heat dissipation line of the previous generation of processors due to an increase in the number of transistors, which is not proportional to the reduction in the technical process.

Built into the processor.

If you don't need a built-in video core, then you shouldn't buy a processor with it. You will only get worse heat dissipation, extra heating (not always), worse overclocking potential (not always), and overpaid money.

In addition, those cores that are built into the processor are only suitable for loading the OS, surfing the Internet and watching videos (and not of any quality).

Market trends are still changing and the opportunity to buy a powerful processor from Intel Without a video core, it drops out less and less. The policy of forced imposition of the built-in video core appeared with processors Intel under the code name Sandy Bridge, the main innovation of which was the built-in core on the same technical process. The video core is located together with processor on one chip, and not as simple as in previous generations of processors Intel. For those who do not use it, there are disadvantages in the form of some overpayment for the processor, the displacement of the heating source relative to the center of the heat distribution cover. However, there are also advantages. Disabled video core, can be used for very fast video encoding technology Quick Sync coupled with special software that supports this technology. In future, Intel promises to expand the horizons of using the built-in video core for parallel computing.

Sockets for processors. Platform lifespan.

Intel has harsh policies for its platforms. The lifespan of each (the start and end dates of processor sales for it) usually does not exceed 1.5 - 2 years. In addition, the company has several parallel developing platforms.

Company AMD, has the opposite policy of compatibility. On her platform on AM 3, all future generation processors that support DDR3. Even when the platform reaches AM 3+ and later, either new processors for AM 3, or new processors will be compatible with old motherboards, and it will be possible to make a painless upgrade for your wallet by changing only the processor (without changing the motherboard, RAM, etc.) and flashing the motherboard. The only nuances of incompatibility may arise when changing the type, since a different memory controller built into the processor will be required. So compatibility is limited and not supported by all motherboards. But in general, for the budget-conscious user or those who are not used to completely changing the platform every 2 years, the choice of processor manufacturer is clear - this AMD.

CPU cooling.

Comes standard with processor BOX-a new cooler that will simply cope with its task. It is a piece of aluminum with a not very high dispersion area. Efficient coolers with heat pipes and plates attached to them are designed for highly efficient heat dissipation. If you do not want to hear extra noise from the fan, then you should purchase an alternative, more efficient cooler with heat pipes, or a closed or open-type liquid cooling system. Such cooling systems will additionally provide the ability to overclock the processor.